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FOODS AND THEIR ADULTERATION 

WILEY 



From "Science," New York: 

Seldom has a more timely book appeared than this, follow- 
ing so closely as it does the beginning of the enforcement of the 
new national pure-food law. For some time prior to the pas- 
sage of this law public interest throughout the country had 
become vitally awakened to the importance of the pure-food 
issue. Amid a large mass of confusing and often exaggerated 
newspaper articles dealing with the subject, it is a comfort to 
find a book covering the field so completely, so sanely and 
withal in so interesting a way. 

While the manual, by the author's statement, is not 
especially designed for the expert chemist, and chemical terms 
are carefully explained for the benefit of the public, yet the 
food analyst will need the book on his shelves for reference. 
From the chemist's standpoint, the many tables and results 
showing the composition of the various food products are 
especially useful for comparison. In many cases also are given 
some of the latter and more improved tests for adulteration, 
which in some instances have not hitherto been so readily 
available. 

The book treats systematically and quite exhaustively of 
all the principal food products, dealing in turn with their manu- 
facture, properties and composition, forms of adulteration and 
dietetic value, and including much information of a general 
nature concerning them. Beginning with the animal foods, 
it thus covers meats and the various meat preparations, fish, 
milk and its products and oleomargarine. Then follow the 
vegetable foods, cereals, vegetables proper, condiments, fruits, 
sugar, syrup, confectionery, honey, and finally infants' and 
invalids' foods. * * * 

Though destined for a wide variety of readers, the book is 
apparently designed first of all for the benefit of the public, at 
a time when the public wants particularly to know about its 
food; and written as it is from a strictly scientific standpoint, 
yet in a popular way, by one who from long experience knows 
so thoroughly his subject, it will be widely read and to great 
advantage by the people as consumers. 

Not only does the author cover the ground directly sug- 
gested by the title, but in a general and useful way gives 
throughout much information about food values and the use of 
food for bodily nourishment. The colored plates illustrating 
the appearance of cuts of healthy beef, for example, will be 
found especially helpful to the householder. 

To the food manufacturer and dealer the book is almost 
indispensable, since it describes very plainly the methods of 
preparation and standards of purity, the effects of storage, and, 
in addition, gives much good and sound advice regarding 
what might be termed controversial forms of adulteration, 
such as chemical preservatives and artificial coloring, called 
controversial because their use with restricted labels has to 
some extent been legalized under some of the state laws, and 
because they have for years formed the subject of much differ- 
ence of opinion among experts in food litigation. * * * 



FOODS AND 
THEIR ADULTERATION 



ORIGIN, MANUFACTURE, AND COMPOSITION OF 

FOOD PRODUCTS; INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' 

FOODS; DETECTION OF COMMON 

ADULTERATIONS, AND FOOD 

STANDARDS 



BY 

HARVEY W. WILEY, M.D., PH.D. 



WITH ELEVEN COLORED PLATES AND 
EIGHTY-SEVEN OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS 



S)econU ©Uition, KcDiueli anU ©nlarpU 



PHILADELPHIA 

P. BLAKISTON'S SON & CO. 

I0I2 Walnut Street 

1911 






Copyright, 191 i, by P. Blakiston's Son & Co. 



WM. F. FELL & CO., 

ELECTROTYPER8 AND PHINTERS, 

1220-24 SANSOM STREET, 

PHILADELPHIA. 



t aA;^so9r,4 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



The text of the body of this work has been carefully revised and the 
statistical matter brought up to date. Many of the paragraphs have been 
entirely re-written, but in general the text and the sequence of the articles 
remain as in the first edition. Two new parts of importance have been 
added to the volume, taking the place of the regulations for inspection and 
the rules and regulations for the enforcement of the Food and Drugs Act, 
which are now of such wide distribution as to need no place in this work. 

The space so saved by the exclusion of these appendices has been given 
to an expansion of the article on infants' and invalids' foods and to a new 
part devoted to simple tests for ordinary adulterations which may be prac- 
ticed with some degree of success in the household. 

In the section devoted to infants' and invalids' foods an attempt has been 
made to describe in a practical way the preparation and care of foods of this 
class, accentuating meanwhile the supreme importance of the natural supply 
of milk for infants under the age of one year, or where this is denied the 
substitution of wholesome, fresh cow's milk, modified to resemble, as nearly 
as possible, the natural sustenance of the infant. The composition of some 
of the principal substitutes for the natural foods of infants has been given 
with a note of warning as to the danger of the employment of even the best 
of these foods to the exclusion of nature's natural food supply. 

This article has been written with no spirit of antagonism towards the 
prepared foods for infants, but only to bring promptly before the mind of the 
lay reader, as pointedly as possible, the supreme importance of using the 
natural food even when an artificial preparation resembles it as nearly as 
can be. 

The article on invalids' foods has been written in^ the light of recent 
medical studies, which show that wholesome food is not only the best 
prophylactic but also in many cases, especially of chronic diseases, the 
best remedy at the service of the physician. Proper nutrition is extremely 
effective in preventing some forms of disease, and proper feeding, based on 
scientific principles, the most effective remedy. 

In the treatment of this subject care has been taken to avoid the danger 
into which so many writers fall of uttering dicta regarding nutrition which 



Vi PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 

are founded rather on misinformation than on the soUd basis of truth. While 
the science of scientific feeding, as a remedy of disease, is still in its infancy 
it is hoped that the present contribution may do much to enlighten the mind 
of the lay public on a question of such great importance as the treatment of 
disease in the home. 

With the household tests for simple adulterations an intelligent house- 
wife with a little practice may be able to inform herself of the most com- 
monly occurring adulterations. Especially is this true if there be supplied, 
at the same time, a series of samples of the genuine products which may 
be submitted to the proposed tests. In this case the difference in reaction 
obtained between the genuine and adulterated articles becomes the more 
evident. 

All the appendices have been removed from the revised edition saving 
the standards of purity of food products adopted by the Secretary of Agri- 
culture, in harmony with the provisions made by Congress. 

Harvey W. Wiley. 
Washington, D. C. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Introduction. 



Proper Ration, 3; Social Function of Food, 5; Definition and Composition of 
Foods, 6; Classification of Foods, 7; Explanation of Chemical Terms, 8. 

Part I. — Meats and Meat Products 1 1-94 

Definition, 11; Edible Animals, 11; Classificationof Meat Foods, 12; Prepar- 
ation of Animals, 12; Inspection, 13; Tuberculosis, 13; Consumers' Rights, 
14; Slaughter and Preparation of CarcasseS; 14; Names of Parts, 15-20; De- 
livery of Fresh JNIcat, 21; Storage, 23; Disposition of Fragments, 23; Detec- 
tion of Different Kinds of Meat, 24; Dried and Pickled Meat, 25; Composi- 
tion of Pig's Flesh, 26-33; Preserved Meats, 34-38; Argument of Small 
Quantities, 38-40; Preparation for Canning, 41; Parboiling, 41; Sterilization, 
42; Special Studies of Canning, 43-48; Relation of Canned to Fresh Beef, 48; 
Canned Ham and Bacon, 48-50; Canned Tongue, 50; Fat as a Test for 
Adulteration, 51; Potted Meats, 51-56; Canned Poultry, 56; Canned Horse- 
meat, 57; Canned Cured Meats, 59-60; Magnitude of Industry, 61; Gen- 
eral Observations, 62; Lard, 63-77; Soups, 77-78; Beef Extract, 79^ 80; 
Beef Juice, 82; Soluble Meats, 83; Preparations of Blood, 83; Beef-tea, 84; 
Dried and Powdered Meats, 85; Active Principles in Meat Extracts, 86; Re- 
lation between Juice and Nutritive \'alue, 87; Nitrogenous Bases, 88-90; 
Gelatine, 90-92; Terrestrial Animal Oils, 93. 

Part II. — Poultry and Eggs and Game Birds 95- r 16 

Application of Name, 94; Domesticated Fowls, 95-116; Chicken, 95-104; 
Duck, 104; Goose, 105; Pigeon, 107; Turkey, 107; Forced Fattening, 109; 
Slaughtering and Preparing for Market, in; Poisonous Principles in Eggs, 
116; Parasites in Eggs, 116. 

Part III. — Fish Foods 11 7-166 

Classification, 117; Edible Portion, 119; Principal Constituents, 119; Ale- 
wives, 121; Ancho\y, 122; Black Bass, 122; Bluefish, 122; Carp, 123; 
Catfish, 123; Codfish, 124; Eels, 126; Flounder, 127; Graylings, 128; Had- 
dock, 128; Hake, 128; Halibut, 128; Herring, 129; Horse Mackerel, 130; 
Hog-fish, 130; Mackerel, 131; Menhaden, 132; Mullet, 132; Muskal- 
lunge, 133; Pickerel or Pike, 133; Pompano, 134; Red Snapper, 134; Rock 
Bass, 135; Salmon, 135-138; Sardines, 139-140; Scup, 141; Shad, 141-142; 
Sheepshead, 143; Smelt, 144; Spanish Mackerel, 144; Sturgeon, 144; 
Caviar, 145; Striped Bass, 146; Sole, 146; Tautog, 147; Tilefish, 147; 
Trout, 147-148; Turbot, 149; Weakfish, 149; Whitefish, 150; Fluorids in 
Fish, 151; Marketing, 151; Cold Storage, 151; Canning, Drying, and Adul- 
teration, 152; Value as Food, 153; Shellfish, 153; Clams, 153; Lobster, 155; 
Crabs, 155; Crawfish, 156; Shrimp, 157; Acjuatic Reptiles, 157; Turtle, 
157; Terrapin, 158; Mussel, 158; Oysters, 158-164; Animal Oils, 165; 
Marine Animal Oils, 165-166. 

Part IV. — Milk and Milk Products and Oleomargarine 169-216 

Milk, Limitation of Name, 169; Composition, 169; Method of Production, 
169-174; Cream, 175; Curd Test for Purity, 176-178; Whey and Kou- 
miss, 179; Buttermilk and Bonnyclabber, 181; Butter, 182-187; Oleomar- 
garine, 187-189; Cheese, 190; Kinds, igi; Adulteration and Misbranding, 
192; Coloring, 193; Cottage Cheese, 195; American Cheese Manufacture, 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



196-200; Grading Cheese, 200; Cream Cheese, 201; Foreign Types, 201- 
202; Sage Cheese, 203; English Cheese, 203-205; French Cheese, 206-208; 
Limburger, 208; Edam, 210; Bacterial Activity, 211; Chemical Changes in 
Ripening, 212-214; Digestibility, 214; Effect of Cold Storage, 215; Prepara- 
tions of Casein, 215. 

Part V.— Cereal Foods 217-273 

Barley, 217-218; Buckwheat, 219-221; Indian Corn (Maize), 222-232; 
Oats, 232-236; Rice, 236; Rye, 237-239; Wheat, 239-242; Wheat Flour, 
24^-245; Gluten, 245-247; Bleaching, 247; Adulterations, 248; Standard 
Age and Substitutes, 248; Bread, 249;;^Yeast, 250; Ferments, 250; Chemical 
Aerating Agents, 251; Baking Powders, 251-254; Composition of Bread, 254- 
255; Comparative Nutritive Properties, 256-257; Biscuit, 258; Sugar Lost 
in Fermentation, 259; Texture of Loaves, 259; Macaroni, 260-264; Cakes, 
265-267; Breakfast Foods, 267-271. 

Part VI. — Vegetables, Condiments, Fruits 273-388 

Succulent Vegetables, 273; Artichoke, 274: Asparagus, 275; Bean, 275- 
276; Beets, 277; Brussels Sprouts, 278; Cabbage, 278; Carrot, 279; Cauli- 
flower, 279; Celery, 280; Chicory, 280; Cranberry, 281; Cress, 281; Cucum- 
bers, 281; Egg-plant, Garlic, and Gourds, 282; Horseradish, Jerusalem Arti- 
choke, and Kale, 282; Leek, Lettuce, Melons, and Cantaloupe, 284-286; 
Okra and Onion, 286; Parsnip, 287; Peas, 287; Potatoes, 288-298; Potato 
Starch, 296-299; Rhubarb, 299; Squash, 299; Sweet Potato, 299-304; 
Turnip, 304; Yam, 304; Canned Vegetables, 305-315; Ketchup, 316; 
Use of Refuse in Ketchup, 317; Starches as Foods, 317-321; Condiments, 
321-326; Fruits, 326-329; Apples, 330-335; Cherries, 336; Grapes, 337-338; 
Peaches, 339-341; Plums, 341; Quince, 342; Small Fruits, 342-343; Tropi- 
cal and Subtropical Fruits, 343-348; Citrus Fruits, 348-369; Composition 
of Pineapple, 363-364; Ash of Tropical Fruits, 367; Sugar and Acid in 
Fruit, 369; Canned Fruits, 370-372; Fruit Sirups, 373-374; Jams, Jellies, 
and Preserves, 375-381; Manufacture of Jellies, 381-3S2; Compound 
Jams and Jellies, 383; Preserves, 384; Fruit Butter, 385; Brandied Fruit, 
386; Importance of Preserving Industry, 386-388. 

Part VII. — Vegetable Oils and Fats, and Nuts 389-428 

Definition, 389; Chemical Characteristics, 390; Drying and Non-drying Oils, 
391; Physical Characters, 392-393; Edible Vegetable Oils, 394-413; Cot- 
tonseed Oil, 397-401; Olive Oil, 402-405; Peanut Oil, 406; Rape Oil, 407; 
Sesame Oil, 408; Sunflower Oil, 409; Cacao- butter, 410; Coconut Oil, 411; 
Palm Oil, 412; Nuts, 413-428; Acorn, 414; Beechnuts, Brazil-nut, 415; 
Butternut, Chestnut, 416; Chinese Nut, 417; Coconut, Filbert, 418; Hazel- 
nut, Hickory-nut, 419; Peanuts, 420-424; Pecan, 424-425; Pistachio, 426; 
Walnut, 426-428. 

Part VIII. — Fungi as Foods 429-454 

Mushrooms, Production, 429-430; Varieties, 430; Food Value, 430; Distinc- 
tion between FMible and Poisonous, 433-439; Types of Edible Mush- 
rooms, 440; Horse Mushroom, 441; Shaggy Mushroom, 443; Fairy Ring 
Mushroom, 443; Puff-ball, 444; Cepe, 445; Fly Amanita, 446; Poisoning 
by Mushrooms, 448; Canned Mushrooms, 449; Trufiies, 450-453; Food 
^'alue of Fungi, 454. 

Part IX. — Sugar, Sirup, Confectionery, and Honey 455-494 

Sugar, Origin of Sugar, 455; Beet Sugar, 456-465; Cane Sugar, 466; Maple 
Sugar, 467-468; Sugar Refining, 468-470; Sugar Production, 471; Adultera- 
tion of Sugar, 471; Sugar as Food, 472; Sirup, Maple, 472-473; Cane, 475; 
Sorghum, 476; Molasses, 477-478; Mixed Sirups, 479; Adulteration of 
Sirups, 480; Confectionery, 482; Materials, 482; Manufacture, 483; Crystal- 
lized Fruits and Flowers,' 483; Food Value of Candy, 483; Adulteration 
of Confections, 483-486; Honey, Definition, Historical, 486; Preparation 
of Honey, 487; Beehives, 488; Distribution of Honey Industry, 489; Comb 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix 

Honey, 489; Extracted Honey, 490; Properties of Honey, 491-492; Adulter- 
ation of Honey, 493-494. 

Miscellaneous 494-496 

Mince Meat, 494; Pie Fillers, 496. 

Part X. — Infants' and Invalids' Foods 497-592 

Infants' Foods, 497-549; Good Nutrition, Feeding Immature Infants, 498; 
Frequency of Feeding, 499; Percentage Feeding, 500; Calorific Value, 501; 
Weaning, 542; Early and Late Feeding, 503-506; Mothers' Milk, 506-^09; 
Comparative Composition of Milk, 509-513; Opinions Respecting Infants' 
Foods, 513-521; Modified Milk, 521-531; Preservation of Milk, 531-537; 
Pasteurization and Sterilization, 537-546; Milk Supply for Large Cities, 546- 
549; Invalids' Foods, 549-592; Care of Foods, 549-551; Classes and Tolera- 
tion, 557; Cause of Disease, 553; Sour Milk and Longevity, 554-557; Pre- 
servation of Fruit Juices, 557-558; Foods as Drugs, 558-559; Meat Prepa- 
rations, 560-564; Analyses of Meat Products, 565, 567; Diet in Diabetes, 
567-576; Diet in Nephritis, 577; Diet in Obesity, 577-580; Diet in Tuber- 
culosis, 580-589; Analysis of Infants' and Invalids' Foods, 590-592. 

Part XI. — Simple Methods for Detecting Food Adulterations 593-61 1 

General Classes of Adulteration, 593; Some Forms of Food Adulteration, 593- 
594; Chemical and Condimental Preservatives, and Colors, 594-595; Ma- 
terials and Reagents, 596; Tests for Boric and Benzoic Acids, Saccharin and 
.Salicylic Acid, 597-598; Detection of Artificial Coloring, 598-600; Detection 
of Common Adulterants, 600-602; Examination of Foods for Adulterants, 
602-608; Butter and Oleomargarine, 608-610; Watered Milk, 610-611. 

APPENDIX 
Food Standards, 613-629 

Index, 63 1-641 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Colored Plates. Pace. 

Beef Tenderloin, Facing 15 

Beef Sirloin, " 15 

Beef Ribs — Regular Cut, " 15 

Beef Ribs — Spencer Cut, " 15 

Sirloin Butts, " 15 

Beef Rib, " 15 

Beef Loin, " 15 

Drying Figs: Smyrna, Smyrna Section, Adriatic, Adriatic Section, " 349 

Olives: Mission, Sevillano, " 402 

Jordan Almond, " 414 

JPeanut (Arichide), " 420 

Fig. 

1. Cuts of Beef, 16 

2. Commercial Cuts of Beef, 17 

3. Diagram of Cuts of Veal, 18 

4. Diagram of Cuts of Lamb and Mutton, IQ 

5. Diagram of Cuts of Pork, ig 

6. Commercial Cuts of Pork, 20 

7. Graphic Chart Representing the Com])arativc Influences of Foods and Preserva- 

tives, 39 

8. Lard Crystals, 67 

9. Beef Fat Crystals, 67 

10. Kettle for Rendering Lard, 72 

1 1. Apparatus for Test of Adulteration of Lard, 74 

12. Chicken House, Rhode Island E.xperiment Station, 9^> 

13. Cow Stables, Maplctown Farm, Sumner, Washington, 170 

14. Apparatus for Cooling Milk, 172 

15. Improvised Wisconsin Curd Test,. 177 

16. Milk; Broken Curd in Whey; Matted Curd, 177 

17. Curd from a Good Milk, 178 

18. Curd from a Tainted Milk, 178 

19. Curd from Foul Milk, 178 

20. Power Churn, Ready for Use, 183 

21. Power Churn, Open, 184 

22. Barley Starch, 218 

23. Buckwheat Starch, 222 

24. Section of Raw Popcorn, 224 

25. Section of Popcorn in First Stage of Popping, Showing Partially P3xpandcd Starch 

Grains and Ruptured Cell Walls, 225 

26. Section of Fullv Popped Pojicorn, 226 

27. Indian Corn Starch, 229 

28. Starch Grains of Indian Corn, under Polarized Light, 230 

29. Oat Starch, 235 

30. Rice Starch, 237 

31. Rye Starch, 238 

32. Wheat Starch, 242 

33. Wheat Starch under Polarized Light, 243 

34. Kedzie's Farinometer Showing the Parts, 246 

35. Kedzie's Farinometer in Use, 247 



Xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig. Page. 

36. Comparative Appearance of Breads of Different Kinds, 259 

37. A Field of Durum Wheat, 261 

38. Drought-resistant Macaroni Wheats (Heads and Grains), 262 

39. Potato Starch, 291 

40. Potato Starch under Polarized Light, 291 

41. Rasping Cylinder for Making Starch, 29.7 

42. Shaking Tabic for Separating the Starch from the Pulped Potato, 297 

43. The Potato Rasping Cylinder Arranged for Work, 298 

44. View of Indian Corn Canning Factory, Showing Accumulation of Husks and Cobs, 308 

45. Maranta (Arrowroot) Starch, 318 

46. A Cassava Field in Georgia, 319 

47. Cassava Starch, 321 

48. Scuppernong Grape Vine, Roanoke Island, 338 

49. Vineyard Near Fresno, California, 339 

50. Avocado Tree, 346 

51. Fig Tree Thirty Feet High Near Yuba, California, 350 

52. Jamaica Mango Tree, 356 

53. An Edge of a California Orange Grove, 358 

4. The Original Seedless Orange Tree, 359 

55. A Group of the Washington Navel Orange on the Tree, 360 

56. Covered Pineapple, 361 

57. Removing the Oil Cakes from a Cottonseed Press, 400 

58. Pecan Tree, 30 Years Old, Morgan City, La., 422 

59. Five Forms of Choice, Thin-shelled Pecans. Also Wild Nut Showing Difference 

in Size, 423 

60. Full Grown Pecan Tree, - 425 

61. Common Mushroom, Agaricus campestris, 440 

62. Edible Mushrooms {Agaricus arvcnsis Schaeff.), 441 

63. Shaggy Mushroom, Coprinus comatus, 1 442 

64. Fairy Ring Formed by Marasmius oreades, an Edible Mushroom, 444 

65. Puff-ball, Lycoperdon cyathiforme, Top View, 445 

66. Amanita (Full Grown), 446 

67. Fly Amanita Buttons {Amanita muscaria), 447 

68. Correct Position of a Mature Beet in the Soil, 458 

69. Map Showing Temperature Zone in Which the Sugar Beet Attains Its Greatest 

Perfection, 459 

70. A Field of Beets Ready for Harvesting, 460 

71. Beets Ready for Transportation to Factory, 4.61 

72. Diffusion Battery, 462 

73. Multiple-effect Evaporating Apparatus, 463 

74. Vacuum Strike Pan, 464 

75. Sugar Cane Field Ready for Harvest, 465 

76. C^ane Field Partly Harvested, 466 

77. Tapping the Maple Trees, 468 

78. Transporting the Sap to the Sugar House, 468 

79. Boiling the Maple Sap, 469 

80. Small Primitive Mill for Extracting Juice from Sugar Cane for Sirup Making, 473 

81. Mill and Evaporating Apparatus for Sirup Making in Georgia, 474 

82. Relative Length of Canes Used for Sirup Making, 475 

83. Swarm of Bees on Bough of Tree, 487 

84. Artificial Bee Hives under Shade of Grape Vine, 488 

85. A Frame Containing 24 Boxes of Honey, 489 

86. Showing Box of Honey Partially Capped, 490 

87. Straus Home Pasteurizer Apparatus, 541 



INTRODUCTION. 



The growing importance to manufacturers, dealers, and consumers of a 
knowledge of food products has led to the preparation of the following manual. 

Unfortunately, many misleading statements respecting the composition of 
foods, their nutritive value, and their relation to health and digestion have 
been published and received with more or less credence by the public. Claims 
of superior excellence, which are entirely baseless, are constantly made for 
certain food products in order to call the attention of the public more directly 
to their value and, unfortunately, at times to mislead the public with respect 
to their true worth. 

It is not uncommon to see foods advertised as of exceptional quality, either 
as a whole or for certain purposes. Many of the preparations of this kind are 
of undoubted excellence, but fail to reach the superior standard or perform 
the particular function which is attributed to them. Particularly has it been 
noticed that foods are offered for specific purposes or the nourishment of 
certain parts of the body, especially of the brain and nerves. We are all 
familiar with the advertisements of foods to feed the brain, or feed the nerves, 
or feed the skin. It is hardly necessary to call attention to the al:)surdity of 
claims of this kind. One part of the body cannot be nourished if the other 
parts are neglected, and the true principle of nutrition requires a uniform and 
equal development and nourishment of all the tissues. It is true that many 
of the tissues have predominant constituents. For instance in the bones are 
found large quantities of phosphate of calcium and in the muscles nitrogenous 
tissues dominate. In the brain and nerves there are considerable quantities 
of organic phosphorus. All of these bodies, however, are contained in normal 
food properly balanced. 

It would be contrary to the principles of physiology to attempt to feed the 
bones by consuming a large excess of phosphorus in the food or the muscles 
by confining the food to a purely nitrogenous component. Such attempts, 
instead of nourishing the tissues indicated, will so unbalance the rations as 
to disarrange the whole metabolic process, and thus injure and weaken the 
very tissues they are designed to support. 

It seems, therefore, advisable to prepare a manual which mav be used in 
conjunction with works on dietetics and on physiolog}' and hv^iene and yet 
of a character not especially designed for the expert. 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

The American public is now so well educated that any average citizen is 
fully capable of understanding scientitic problems if presented to him in a 
non-technical garb. 

It is, therefore, not difficult to see that the great army of manufacturers and 
dealers in food products, as well as the still greater army of consumers, are 
able to receive and to utilize information concerning food products which is 
of common interest to all. A dissemination of knowledge of this kind will 
guide the manufacturer in his legitimate business and protect the public against 
deceptions such as those mentioned above. 

In the evolution of society, economy and efficiency indicate that specializa- 
tions should be made as completely as possible. For this reason it is advisable 
that foods of a certain character be manufactured and prepared for consump- 
tion on a large scale, so that due economy and purity may be secured. On 
the other hand there are many other kinds of foods which, by reason of their 
properties, cannot be prepared on a large scale but must be produced near or 
at the place of consumption. Milk is a type of this class of foods. It is alto- 
gether probable, therefore, that the consumption of manufactured foods will 
not decrease but increase even more rapidly than the number of our population. 

In order that the people may be able to judge of the quality and character 
of products of this kind, information readily available appears to be highly 
desirable. 

In the other case of the utilization of raw materials, it is equally important 
that the people of this country understand their nature and their functions 
in the digestive process. The great nutritive value of our food is found in the 
cereals, the meats, the fruits, and vegetables which we consume. A descrip- 
tion of foods of this class, the places of their growth, the conditions under 
which they are matured and marketed, the problems which relate to their 
storage and transportation, their composition in respect of nutrition and 
digestibility, the dangers which may accrue from their decay, and the adultera- 
tions or sophistications to which they may be subjected are matters of the 
greatest public importance. 

A treatise of this kind in order to be of its full value for which it is intended 
.must be concise, expressed in simple language, in a form easily consulted, and 
yet be of a character which will be reliable and which will give full informa- 
tion on the subject. 

It is a common habit of speech to divide foods into two great classes, 
namely, foods and beverages. This is not a scientific division, but is one which 
has been so well established by custom as to render it advisable to divide this 
work into two portions, one devoted to food in the sense just used and the 
other to beverages. The first volume of this work devoted to foods will treat 
of those bodies commonly known under the term " foods, " — namely, cereals^ 
meats of all kinds, milk, vegetables, nuts, and fruits. The second volume 



A PROPER RATION. o 

will embrace the study of beverages, namel}-, natural and artificial mineral 
waters, soda waters, soft drinks, coffee, tea, cocoa, wines, cider, beer and 
other fermented beverages, distilled beverages of all kinds, and mixtures 
or compounds thereof. 

In connection with the description of the origin of foods and their general 
characteristics will be given a statement of their chemical composition, especi- 
ally in relation to nutritive properties. The principal adulterations or sophis- 
tications to which the food products are obnoxious will be briefly described, 
and where simple methods of detecting adulterations arc known, of a character 
to be applied without special chemical knowledge or skill, they w^ill be given. • 

An attempt is thus made to lay before those interested, in as compact a 
form as possible, the chief points connected with the production of food, its 
manipulation, and its use for the nourishment of the body. 

It is not the intention of this manual to enter at all into the subject of cooking 
or the physiology of foods and nutrition. That is a distinct and separate part of 
this problem and has already been treated in many manuals. In this connection, 
however, attention may be called to the great importance of proper cooking 
in the use of food. Raw materials of the best character, prepared and trans- 
ported in the most approved manner, may be so injured in the kitchen in the 
process of cooking as to be rendered both unpalatable and difficult of digestion. 
On the contrary, food materials of an inferior quality, provided they contain 
no injurious substances, may be so treated by the skilled cook as to be both 
palatable and nutritious. The desirability of the dissemination of correct 
principles of cooking is no less than that of giving information respecting the 
materials on which the art of cookery is exercised. It may be added that the 
art of cookery at the present time should not be confined to the mere technical 
manipulation, the application of heat and of condimental substances, but 
should also have some reference to the actual process of nutrition. 

Foods should be prepared in the kitchen, not only of a palatable character 
and properly spiced but also selected in such a manner as to safeguard one 
of the chief purposes of food, namely, the proper nutrition of the body and the 
avoidance of any injury to digestion. 

It is commonly admitted that many, perhaps most, of the diseases of the 
digestive tract to which the American people are so subject arise from the 
consumption of rations improperly balanced, poorly prepared, or used in 
great excess. To the intelligent and scientific cook the information con- 
tained in this manual will especially appeal. 



A PROPER RATION. 

The study of the science of nutrition has revealed the character of nourish- 
ment necessarv to build the tissues and restore their waste. The term " food" 



4 INTRODUCTION. 

in its broadest signification includes all those substances which when taken 
into the body build tissues, restore waste, furnish heat and energy, and pro- 
vide appropriate condiments. The building of tissues is especially an import- 
ant function during the early life of animals as it is through this building of 
tissues that growth takes place. The restoration of waste of tissues assumes 
special importance during that period of life when the weight of the body 
is supposed to be reasonably constant. At this time the waste of tissue in 
the natural processes is restored by the assimilation of new material in the same 
proportion. 

If the assimilation of new material goes on at a greater rate than the waste 
of old material it manifests itself during the period of expected equilibrium 
in the deposition of adipose tissue and a consequent abnormal increase in 
weight. 

In the after period of life the process of waste is naturally more vigorous 
than that of assimilation, and the tendency is manifested, which is wholly 
in harmony with the laws of Nature, to gradually diminish the weight of the 
body, and this continues to the extreme emaciation of old age. 

It is evident, therefore, that the food consumed should be adapted to these 
changing periods. The growing animal needs a larger c^uantity of food in 
proportion to its actual weight than the animal which is in a state of equi- 
librium, that is, of mature age, and the animal which is entering upon the 
period of old age needs a less quantity of food in proportion to its weight 
than in either of the other periods of life. Thus, the rations of infants and 
children should be generous, the rations of mature man sufficient, and the 
rations of old age limited. 

The food should also contain the various elements which enter into nutri- 
tion in the proper quantity. The nitrogenous constituents in food, when 
subjected to the ordinary process of digestion, yield a certain quantity of 
heat and energy but their more important function is to nourish the nitrog- 
enous elements of the body, of which the muscles, hair, skin, and finger- 
nails are types. The mineral constituents of food, especially phosphorus and 
lime, have a general utility in promoting the metabolic functions, especially 
in the movement of the fluids of the body through the cells walls, and at the 
same time are actual nourishing materials, entering particularly into the com- 
position of the bones and teeth. 

The fats and oils which are present in the foods have the capacity of pro- 
ducing large quantities of heat and energy during their combustion in the 
body, and thus serve as a source of animal heat and muscular activity. 

The starches and sugars which are the most abundant elements of our 
food, although they have a heat-forming power of less than one-half that of 
fats, are largely utilized in the production of heat and energy and in the for- 
mation of animal fat. 



SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF FOOD. 5 

To secure a proper and complete nutrition of the body it is desirable that 
all these elements should be so adjusted as to provide for complete nourish- 
ment without having any one of them in great excess. It is evident that an 
■excess of any one or more of these nutrient materials must necessarily impose 
on the organs of the body an additional work in securing their proper elimi- 
nation. This tends to overburden the excretory organs and to cause a pre- 
mature breakdown thereof. This giving away of the organs may not come 
for many years, not, perhaps, until advanced life, but when it comes it neces- 
sarily shortens the period of human existence. 

The term "balanced ration" means the adjustment of nutrients in the 
food in such a way as to secure complete and perfect nutrition without load- 
ing the body with an excess of any one element. This is also an important 
point on the score of economy. A large percentage of all the earnings of man 
is expended for food products, and hence these products should be used in 
a manner to secure the best results possible. If, by a practice of scientific 
nutrition, lo percent of the value of foods could be saved it would create a 
fund which, could it be utilized, would minister in the highest degree to the 
comfort and welfare of the human family and form an abundant pension for 
old age. 

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF FOOD. 

In the above paragraphs attention has been directed particularly to the 
nutritive and economic properties of food. It must not be considered that 
mere nutrition is the sole object of foods, especially for man. It is the first 
object to be conserved in the feeding of domesticated animals, but is only one 
of the objects to be kept in view in the feeding of man. ISIan is a social 
animal and, from the earliest period of his history, food has exercised a most 
important function in his social life. Hence in the study of food and of its 
uses a failure to consider this factor would be regrettable. For this reason 
it is justifiable in the feeding of man to expend upon the mere social features 
of the meal a sum which often is equal to or greater than that expended for 
the mere purpose of nutrition. This part of the subject, however, belongs 
especially to the kitchen and dining room, and, therefore, will not be dis- 
cussed at greater length at the present time. 

It is believed that a more careful study of the food he consumes will benefit 
man in many ways. It will lead to a wider public interest in the problem 
of the purity of food and the magnitude of the crime committed against man- 
kind in the debasement, adulteration, and sophistication of food articles. 

This study will impart to the social function of food an additional charm, 
in that the origin and character of the material consumed will be known 
and the properties which they possess for nourishing the body understood. 
This will enable man, as a social animal, to so conduct himself at table as 



6 INTRODUCTION. 

to secure the greatest possible pleasure and social benefit therefrom and at 
the same time avoid any injury which ignorance might permit and invite. 

It may appear that the inartistic treatment of a subject of this kind, as 
indicated in the following pages, is not one which is calculated to excite any 
.sympathetic interest or appeal to the natural desire for literary and artistic 
expression. Yet the importance of the subject is so great as to warrant the 
experiment of presenting the matter in this form rather than in any more 
elaborate and connected way. 

DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF FOODS. 

Food, in its general sense, is that which nourishes the body without regard to 
its physical state, that is, it may be solid, liquid, or gaseous. More particularly 
defined, food is that material taken into the body in the ordinary process of 
eating which contains the elements necessary for the growth of tissues, for 
the repair of the destruction to which the tissues are subjected during the 
ordinary vital processes and for furnishing heat and energy necessary to 
life. Incident to the utilization of these elements there is consumed, also, 
a considerable quantity of matter inextricably mingled with food in a natural 
way, which takes no direct part in nutrition and yet which is useful, as a 
mass, in promoting the digestive processes. These bodies are certain indi- 
gestible cellular tissues which are present in foods, mineral matter, and other 
materials which are naturally found in food products. Included in this 
broad definition, therefore, are many substances which are usually not thought 
of in the sense of food; among these are water and air. Air, however, would 
probably be excluded because it is not introduced into the stomach, that is, 
not in quantities which have any significance in the vital processes. Water, 
on the contrary, is one of the most indispensable constituents of food and is 
also used in considerable quantities as a beverage. The water, itself, is 
indispensable to nutrition and is also one of those bodies mentioned above 
which are necessary to secure the proper conduct of the digestive processes. 

By means of the oxygen in the air the combustion of food in the various 
parts of the body is secured, and thus animal heat and energy developed. In 
this respect the combustion of a food product is similar in every way to the 
burning of coal in the production of heat and motion. The same calorific 
laws which govern the steam-engine are applicable, in all their rigidity, to 
the animal engine. The quantity of heat produced by the combustion of a 
certain amount of fat or sugar is definitely measured in a calorimeter and is 
found to correspond exactly to the quantity of heat produced by the ordinary 
combustion of such bodies. The term "food," therefore, in this respect, 
would include the oxygen of the air without which the development of animal 
heat and energy would be impossible. It also includes those bodies of a 



CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS. 7 

liquid character which are classed as beverages rather than as foods. .\ll 
of these bodies have nutritive properties, although their chief value is condi- 
mental and social. 

That large class of food products which are known as condiments are 
properly termed iood, since they not only possess nutritive ])ropcrties but 
through their condimental character promote digestion and by making the 
food more palatable secure to a higher degree the excellence of its social 
function. 

It is now possible to condense into a distinct expression the definition of 
food in the following language: Food in a general sense embraces those 
substances taken into the body which build tissues, restore waste, and fur- 
nish heat and energy. 

CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS. 

Foods may be considered under different classifications. First, as to gen- 
eral appearance and use three classes may be made, — foods, beverages and 
condiments. As types of the first division of these foods may be mentioned 
cereals and their preparations, meat and its preparations (except meat ex- 
tracts), fish, fowl, and game. Beverages are those liquid food products which 
are more valued for taste and flavor than for actual nutritive value. As types 
of beverages may be mentioned wines, beers, distilled spirits and liquors of 
all characters, tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, etc. Under wines, in this sense, 
may be included the fermented beverages made of fruit juices, such as cider, 
perry, etc. Types of condiments are salt, pepper, spices, vinegar, etc. Milk, 
although a liquid substance, is hardly to be considered a beverage, and on 
account of its high nutritive properties may be classed, together with its 
preparations, under the first head. 

Foods may also be classified as nitrogenous, starchy, oily, and condimental. 
Nitrogenous foods are those in which the proportion of their material con- 
taining nitrogen is large. Lean meat may be regarded as a type of nitrogenous 
food, since it consists almost exclusively of tissues known as protein and con- 
tains nitrogen and sulfur as essential ingredients. The white of an egg is 
also a typical nitrogenous food and, to a less extent, the yolk. Among vege- 
tables, peas and beans are typical foods containing large percentages of 
nitrogenous matter. The gluten of wheat is also a typical nitrogenous food 
and the zein of Indian corn, corresponding to gluten, is a nitrogenous material. 

Practically all the vegetables used as foods contain mere or less protein 
in their constituents. Among the cereals oats has the largest quantity and 
rice the smallest of this valuable food material. Of oily foods the fat of 
animals, including butter, is a typical representative. All meats, fish, fowl, 
and game contain more or less fat. Of vegetables and fruits there are many 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

which contain large quantities of fat, such as nuts, oily seeds, etc. All vege- 
tables contain more or less fat, although the succulent vegetables usually 
contain but little thereof. Of starchy foods there are no types in animal 
food, the C{uantity of carbohydrate material therein being extremely limited. 
The lobster and horse-flesh contain perhaps a little more than i percent 
of carbohydrate food, but most meats contain mucli less than that. Sugar 
and starch are typical carbohydrate foods. 

The cereal grains are composed largely of starchy foods, and so are certain 
tubers, such as the potato, cassava, etc. Of the common cereals rice contains 
more starch than any other and oats the least. Sugars are intimately related 
to starch and are included under the term starchy food or carbohydrate 
food. The carbohydrate matter in the flesh mentioned above, namely gly- 
cogen, is of the nature of a sugar. Among the typical sugar foods are beets, 
melons, and fruits, some of which contain large percentages of sugar. All fruits 
contain greater or less quantities of sugar, and that is true, also, of all vege- 
tables. 

Of the plants which produce the sugar of commerce there may be mentioned 
the sugar-cane, the sugar-beet, the maple, and palm trees. The principal 
sources of the sugar of commerce are the sugar-cane and the sugar-beet. 

Of the condimental foods may be mentioned spices, including pepper, 
mustard, cinnamon, allspice, and other foods of this class. Common salt 
occupies a unique position in food products. It is the only mineral substance 
which has any value as a condiment in human food. But it also has a more 
important function than its condimental character, namely, it furnishes the 
supply of hydrochloric acid without which digestion in the stomach could not 
take place. For this reason common salt must be regarded as an essential 
food product as well as a condiment. 

EXPLANATION OF CHEMICAL TERMS. 

Inasmuch as this manual is not solely intended for expert chemists and 
physiologists but also for the general public, a simple explanation of the use 
of the terms used in analytical data and tables is advisable. 

Under the term moisture is included all the water which is present in a free 
state, that is, not combined in any way with the ingredients of the material, 
and other substances volatile at the temperature of drying. The water is de- 
termined by drying to a constant weight at the temperature of boiling water or 
slightly above. In bodies which are easily oxidized this drying takes place in 
a vacuum or in an inert gas like hydrogen or carbon dioxid. 

Protein. — Under this term are included all the nitrogenous compounds 
in a food product which contain in their composition sulfur, nitrogen, car- 



EXPLANATION OF CHEMICAL TERMS. g 

bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, forming that class of tissues represented by the 
gluten in wheat, the white of an egg, muscular and tendinous fibers, etc. 

Ether Extract. — Under this term is included the fats and oils, the term fat 
being applied to animal fat and the term oil to vegetable products. These 
bodies are all soluble in ether and therefore are grouped together under the 
term "ether extract." There are some fats both in animal and vegetable 
substances insoluble in ether, but they exist in minute quantities and there- 
fore are not separated from the extracts, but the whole matter is given 
together and represents practically the fats and oils in food. 

There are also minute quantities of bodies not fats in foods soluble in 
ether, and these are included in the ether extract. 

Ash. — The term ash is applied to the residue left after the burning of food 
products in the air at a low temperature until the carbon has disappeared. Ash 
is rather an indefinite term and is applied to that residual material of a mineral 
nature composed of sand or silica and the carbonates or oxids of alkaline 
earth or alkalies. The ash also contains the principal part of phosphorus 
present in food products and usually a small proportion of sulfur. These 
bodies in the ash exist as phosphoric and sulfuric acids or their salts. 

Fiber. — The term fiber is applied to those carbohydrate products in food 
which are insoluble in solutions of dilute acid and dilute alkaHes at the boiling 
temperature. Inasmuch as these separated bodies are not wholly pure cellu- 
lose they are often designated as crude fiber. 

Starch and Sugar. — The terms starch and sugar are applied to the car- 
bohydrates in a food product of a starchy or saccharine nature, together with 
the other carbohydrates present which are soluble in dilute acids and 
alkaHes. 

Calories. — The term calorie is used to denote the amount of heat-forming 
material contained in one unit weight of a food product. The number given 
represents the number of degrees of temperature produced in a unit mass 
of water by the heat formed in burning the unit weight of f(xid. The unit 
weights employed are usually as follows: Of the food product, one gram (15 
grains); unit weight of water to be heated, one kilogram (2.2 pounds); unit 
increment of temperature, 1° C. (1.8° F.). The expression 4000 calories there- 
fore means that if one gram of food substance in a dry slate be burned the 
heat produced will raise one gram of water through a temperature of 4000° C, 
or the unit of water (one kilogram) through a temperature of 4° C. For 
convenience the calories are usually expressed as small calories, namely 
4000, instead of large calories, namely 4. In this manual the ex])ression in 
terms of small calories, that is, the temperature increase of one kilogram of 
water produced by burning one gram of substance, multiplied by 1000, will 
be uniformly employed. 



FOODS 



AND THEIR 



ADULTERATION. 



PART I. 

MEATS. 



One great division of human food is meat. Technically, perhaps, the 
edible flesh of every animal used for human food might be described as meat. 
In this manual, however, preference is given to the common meaning of the 
term. 

The flesh of animals is by common consent divided into three principal 
classes, namely, the flesh of terrestrial mammals, or animals not provided with 
wings; second, aerial animals, or animals provided with wings, and, third, 
aquatic animals. A very common classification of these three kinds of food 
is flesh, fowl, and fish. There are animals, the flesh of which is eaten by 
many, which are not exactly included in this classification; for instance, 
animals of an amphibious nature, living partly on land and partly on sea. 
Also many of the animals classed as aerial live chiefly upon the earth; al- 
though having wings they do not use them, such as domesticated fowls. This 
classification, however, is sufficiently exact for the practical pur]X)ses of a 
food manual and, therefore, under the head of meat is included the edible 
flesh of mammals living on the land. 

Animals Whose Flesh is Edible. — Probably the only complete classifica- 
tion of this kind would be to include every animal living on the face of the 
earth since, perhaps, the flesh of every animal living has been more or less 
eaten by man. In a civilized community, however, except in times of disaster 
and dire necessity, certain classes of animals only furnish the principal meat 
food. Nearly all the meat food consumed in the United States is derived from 
cattle, sheep, and swine. Goat flesh is eaten only to a limited extent and 
horse meat scarcely at all, and the only other meats of importance are those of 



12 MEATS. 

wild animals. The principal wild animals used for food are the deer, bear, 
rabbit, and squirrel. Many other wild animals, however, are eaten and in 
some cases highly prized. In this manual only the principal meat foods 
both of domesticated and wild animals will be mentioned. 

Classification of Meat Food as Respects Age. — The edible flesh of 
domesticated animals as well as of wild animals is eaten both in the young 
and full-grown state. Common names, however, designate these different 
classes. For instance, veal in the growing and beef for the full-grown animal, 
lamb for the young and mutton for the full-grown sheep, pig in the younger 
and pork in the full-grown swine, etc. There is no legal limit of age for such 
a distinction, but as long as the animal is not fully grown it may be classified 
under the name representing the young animal. There is a common under- 
standing, however, that in the case of veal and lamb the animal must be under 
one year of age and usually not under two nor more than eight months of 
age. A classification of this kind is so indefinite, however, that no strict 
definition can be given other than that founded on the general principles 
above outlined. 

Preparation of Animals. — The proper sanitary conditions attending 
the fattening of animals intended for slaughter are of great importance to the 
consumer. It is a common understanding that animals intended for slaughter 
should be plump and healthy. Poor animals, either those which are meager 
from lack of food or from disease, are to be rigidly excluded from the slaughter 
pen. Animals intended for slaughter should be fattened under sanitary 
conditions with plenty of fresh water and fresh air as well as good food. The 
stalls in which they are fattened should be clean and well ventilated, and the 
sanitary conditions surrounding them should be such as to exclude contagious 
and epidemic diseases and provide the most favorable environment for growth 
and preparation for the market. 

It is evident that all these conditions are to be secured by proper inspection 
of the animals while preparing for the market. The time will, doubtless, 
soon arrive in this country when the supervision of the preparation of animals 
for the market, the sanitary conditions under which they live, and the general 
environment which surrounds them shall be subjects of local, municipal, and 
state inspection. Since the power of the general government cannot extend 
to states and municipalities, these corporate bodies should take uniform and 
scientific action concerning all these matters. National and state conventions 
of municipal and state sanitary authorities should decide upon uniform sys- 
tems of inspection and sanitation to which all state and municipal authorities 
mivst agree, so that a uniform and effective method of inspection and sanitation 
will be secured throughout the country. 

When animals are transported before slaughter from one state to another 
the national government is then entitled to inspect and certify respecting the 



TUBERCULOSIS. 



13 



condition of the animal thus to be transported from state to state. Bv thus 
combining municipal, state, and national inspection the rights of the consu- 
mer may be conserved, and this is the only means by which they can be kept 
inviolate. 

It is assumed, therefore, that the animal which has been brought for 
slaughter has been fattened under proper sanitary conditions, has not been 
exposed to epidemic or contagious diseases, and outwardly is not afflicted 
with any disease of its own. Such a healthy animal may then be certified as 
fattened for slaughter. 

Inspection after Slaughter. — The inspection after slaughter is of the 
utmost importance, not even second to that of the proper inspection during 
fattening and before slaughter. The veterinarian, skilled in his science, can 
tell by the inspection of the vital organs of the slaughtered animal whether 
it is affected with anv organic disease. Among cattle the most frequent 
organic diseases are lumpy jaw and tuberculosis. In the case of swine one 
of the most common of diseases is trichinosis. In the latter case an inspection 
of the vital organs of the animal is not sufficient. The muscles of the swine, 
first and most commonly affected by trichinosis, must be examined micro- 
scopicallv in order to eliminate the possibility of the flesh of such animals 
going into commerce untagged or unnoticed. 

If the flesh of the swine impregnated with trichinosis be thoroughly cooked 
practically all of the danger to man is eliminated. The consumer, however, 
should not be subjected to the chance of imperfect cooking. A swine affected 
with trichinosis should either be refused admission into consumption or should 
be so tagged that the consumer should know the danger to which he is exposed 
in order to take the necessary precaution to safeguard his health. 

Tuberculosis. — There is a difference of opinion among veterinary and 
hygienic experts respecting the disposition which is to be made of carcasses 
affected with tuberculosis. It is claimed I)y some that if the tuberculosis is 
local, that is, does not extend beyond the lungs, there is no reason why the 
flesh of the animal should be refused to the consumer. The basis of this 
contention is founded upon the opinion of some of the most eminent veterina- 
rians that bovine tuberculosis and human tuberculosis are entirely distinct 
diseases and cannot be transmitted either from the cow to man or vice versd. 
It is not the province of this manual to decide this controversy, although it 
is only right that the consumer should be given the benefit of the doubt. 
Therefore, if the carcass of an animal affected with local tuberculosis is to be 
passed into consumption it should be plainly marked as the flesh of a tuber- 
culosed animal, — not only the carcass as a whole, but every piece thereof that 
is introduced into consumption directly or after canning or mincing. The 
consumer is thus left free to choose for himself whether to eat such meat or 
not. There is a universal agreement among hygienists and veterinarians 



14 MEATS. 

that where tuberculosis is generalized, that is, has affected practically all the 
organs of the body, the carcasses should be condemned. No one will take 
exceptions to this ruling, though it does not appear very plain to the ordinary 
consumer why a little tuberculosis is not a bad thing if a great deal of it is a 
very bad thing. There is an unfortunate tendency in many quarters to 
neglect minute effects and only pay attention to mass action. This does no' 
seem to be a reasonable or desirable method of procedure. 

The Right of the Consumer. — In all these cases of post mortem 
inspection it is the right of the consumer to be informed respecting the conditior 
of the animal admitted to slaughter. Only the undoubtedly sound and 
healthy carcass should be given a free certificate. The badly diseased carcass 
should be condemned and refused admission to consumption. If the partially 
diseased carcass is to be consumed, it should be done under such a system of 
tagging as will absolutely protect any consumer against the use of the partially 
diseased carcass without his knowledge. 

Summary. — The general conclusion reached is that the consumer has the 
right to protection in the character of food which comes upon his table. 
This protection begins at the time the animals are being fed for slaughter. 
It continues during the time the animals are slaughtered and afterwards in 
the preparation of their carcasses for consumption. It does not end until 
the meat is delivered to the consumer properly certified as being sound and 
wholesome and warranted to be free from deleterious coloring matter and 
preservati\es. The consumers of this country can have this protection if 
they demand it. They outnumber the makers of meat products to such 
an overwhelming extent as to be able to secure proper legislation, because 
the manufacturers themselves, as consumers, are equally interested with 
others in this most important point, and should themselves receive for their 
families the same protection that the consumer who has nothing to do 
with the preparation of meat products is entitled to. 

Since the above paragraph was written the Congress has provided for a 
complete inspection of meats as outlined therein. 

Slaughter and Preparation of Carcasses. — It is not the purpose of this 
manual to enter into any discussion of the technique of slaughter and prepa- 
ration of animals whose meat is intended to be eaten. It is believed that in 
this country the mechanism of this process is very near perfection, and espe- 
cially so in the larger establishments where the highest skill is employed. In 
small slaughtering establishments and in farm slaughter there are found many 
points of technique which should be greatly improved. The principal thing 
to be considered is, first, a sudden and in so far as possible a painless death 
of the animal; second, the immediate withdrawal of the blood of the slaughtered 
animal if slaughtered otherwise than by opening the principal artery; third, the 
removal of the intestines and hair or hide of the animal; fourth, immediate 



NAMES APPLIED TO DIFFKRENT PIECES OF EDIBLE ANIMALS. 



15 



cooling at a moderately low temperature until the animal heat is entirely 
radiated; fifth, the cutting of the carcass into the usual form for consumption 
and the removal and utilization of the debris for food or other pur[)oses; sixth, 
the delivery of the meat, if to be eaten in a fresh state, in a condition secured 
from contamination and decay until it is in the hands of the consumer; 
seventh, the curing of the meat in a proper manner by salt, sugar, vinei^ar, 
and wood smoke, and the delivery thereof in an uncontaminated form to the 
consumer. 

It is not established that any further manipulation than that above out- 
lined is desirable or necessary. The use of any kind of dye or coloring matter 
directly or indirectly, of any so-called preservative substance other than 
those of a condimental nature already mentioned, or anv further manipulation 
save that to secure low temperature and freedom from infection is not useful 
necessary, nor desirable. The sooner the manufacturer of these products 
understands the rights of the consumer in this respect and recognizes the 
fundamental verity of the above postulates the better it will be for all parties. 
When these conditions are met all of the many and just objections which have 
been made to the meats of this country will pass away and they will assume 
in the markets of the world that position to which their natural merits, when 
not interfered with by maltreating during curing, entitle them. 

Names Applied to the Different Pieces of Edible Animals,— In the 
preparation of animals for the market experience has shown that thev are best 
cut in certain pieces of a shape determined by the race of the animal itself 
and to these pieces or cuts certain definite names have been applied. The 
method of making these cuts is not the same in all parts of this country or in 
various parts of different countries. The most common cuts used in the 
United States are illustrated in the accompanying figures, under the names 
which are attached thereto. 

The analyses here reported apply to cuts as indicated by the following dia- 
grams. These show the positions of the different cuts, both in the live animal 
and in the dressed carcass as found in the markets. The lines of division 
between the different cuts will vary slightly, according to the usage of the 
local market, even where the general method of cutting is as here indicated. 
The names of the same cuts likewise vary in different parts of the country. 

The Cuts of Beef. — The general method of cutting up a side of beef is 
illustrated in Fig. i, w'hich shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal 
and in a dressed side. The neck piece is frequently cut so as to include more 
of the chuck than is represented by the diagram. The shoulder clod is 
usually cut without bone, while the shoulder (not indicated in diagram) would 
include more or less of the shoulder blade and of the upper end of the fore 
shank. Shoulder steak is cut from the chuck. In many localities the plate 
is made to include all the parts of the fore quarter designated on the diagrams 



i6 



MEATS. 



as brisket, cross ribs, j)late, and navel, and different portions of the plate, as 
thus cut, are spoken of as the " brisket end of plate" and " navel end of plate." 
This part of the animal is largely used for corning. The ribs are frequently 
divided into first, second, and third cuts, the latter lying nearest the chuck 
and being slightly less desirable than the former. The chuck is sometimes 
subdivided in a similar manner, the third cut of the chuck being nearest the 
neck. The names applied to different portions of the loin vary considerably 
in different localities. The part nearest the ribs is frequently called "small 
end of loin " or " short steak." The other end of the loin is called " hip sirloin " 
or "sirloin." Between the short and the sirloin is a portion quite generally 
called the " tenderloin, " for the reason that the real tenderloin, the very tender 




Fig. I.— Cuts of Beef.— (^V///;///o« Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations.) 



''H'L..^ 



strip of meat lying inside the loin, is found most fully developed in this cut. 
Porterhouse steak is a term most frequently applied to either the short steak or 
the tenderloin. It is not uncommon to find the flank cut so as to include more 
of the loin than is indicated in the figures, in which case the upper portion is 
called "flank steak." The larger part of the flank is, however, very fre- 
quently corned, as is also the case with the rump. In some markets the rump 
is cut so as to include a portion of the loin, which is then sold as "rump steak." 
The portion of the round on the outside of the leg is regarded as more tender 
than that on the inside, and is frequently preferred to the latter. As the leg 
lies upon the butcher's table this outside of the round is usually on the upper, 
or top, side, and is therefore called "top round." Occasionally the plate is 
called the "rattle." 



Natural Appearance of Cuts of 
Healthv Beef 



Beef is the most important of any of the meat 
of flesh foods. To h»e able to judge of its fresh- 
ness and freedom from disease is of (,rreat 
practical value. The followini:: colored plates 
show the appearance of some of the principal 
cuts of beef in the proper condition for cooking. 
By comparing the appearance of the beef 
bought in all markets with these plates it is 
possible to form a sound juds^nnent of their 
sm'tability for consumption. 



These seven Plates are 
reproduced by courtesy of 
.Armour & Co., Chicago 




J 



NAMES APPLIED TO DIFFERENT PIECES OF EDIBLE ANIMALS. 



17 



In Fig. 2 is shown a side of beef with the various cuts indicated as used 
for commercial designation. 



Bi >c. M to >-• 

S o. ;;^ r- ?5 ?: 5 

O T) 2. 



2 G23S 




In Fig. 6 (page 20) is shown the interior view of a hog carcass with the 
cuts indicated, as known to the trade. 



i8 



MEATS. 



The Cuts of Veal. — The method of cutting up a side of veal differs con- 
siderably from that employed with beef. This is illustrated by Fig. 3, which 
shows the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in a dressed side. 
The chuck is much smaller in proportion, and frequently no distinction is 
made between the chuck and the neck. The chuck is often cut so as to include 
a good deal of the portion here designated as shoulder, following more nearly 
the method adopted for subdividing beef. The shoulder of veal as here 
indicated includes, besides the portion corresponding to the shoulder in 
beef, the larger part of what is here classed as chuck in the adult animal. The 
under part of the fore quarter, corresponding to the plate in the beef, is often 
designated as breast in the veal. The part of the veal corresponding to the 
rump of beef is here included with the loin, but is often cut to form part of 




Fig. 3. — Diagram of Cuts of Veal. — (Nuttition Bulletins, Office of Experiment Stations.) 



the leg. In many localities the fore and hind shanks of veal are called the 
^'knuckles." 

The Cuts oj Lamb and Mutton. — Fig. 4 shows the relative position of the 
cuts in a dressed side of mutton or lamb and in a live animal. The cuts in a 
side of lamb and mutton number but six, three in each quarter. The chuck 
includes the ribs as far as the end of the shoulder blades, beyond which comes 
the loin. The flank is made to include all the under side of the animal. Some 
butchers, however, make a larger number of cuts in the fore quarter, includ- 
ing a portion of the cuts marked "loin" and "chuck" in Fig. 4, to make a 
cut designated as " rib," and a portion of the " flank" and "shoulder" to make a 



NAMES APPLIED TO DIFFERENT PIECES OF EDIBLE ANIMALS. 



19 



cut designated as "brisket." The term "chops" is ordinarily used to des- 
ignate portions of either the loin, ribs, chuck, or shoulder, which are either 
cut or "chopped" by the butcher into pieces suitable for frying or broiling. 
The chuck and ribs are sometimes called the "rack." 




Fig. 4.— Diagram of Cuts of Lamb and Mutton. — {A'titrition Biiltetitts, Office of Experiment 

Stations.) 

The Cuts of Fork. — The method of cutting up a side of pork differs con- 
siderably from that employed with other meats. A large portion of the carcass 
of a dressed pig consists of almost clear fat. This furnishes the cuts which are 
used for "salt pork" and bacon. Fig. 5 illustrates a common method of 




Fig. 5.— Diagram of Cuts of Pork.— {JVutrition But/etins, Office o/ Experiment Stations.) 



cutting up pork, showing the relative position of the cuts in the animal and in 
the dressed side. The cut designated as " back cut" is almost clear fat and is 
used for salting and pickling. The " middle cut " is the portion quite generally 
used for bacon and for " lean ends" salt pork. The belly is salted or pickled, 
or may be made into sausages. 



20 



MEATS. 




Fig. 6.-CoMMfc;RCiAL Cuts of i-oRK. -(Courtesy of Armour & Co.) 



ROAST BEEF AND BEEFSTEAK. 21 

Beneath the "back cut" are the ribs and loin, from which are obtained 
"spareribs," "chops," and roasting ineces, not designated in the figure. 
The hams and shoulders are more frequently cured, but are also sold fresh 
as pork "steak." The tenderloin pro[)er is a com()arati\eIy lean and verv 
small strip of meat lying under the bones of the loin and usually weighing a 
fraction of a pound. Some fat is usually trimmed off from the hams and 
shoulders which is called "ham and shoulder fat" and is often used for sau- 
sages, etc. What is called "leaf lard," at least in some localities, comes from 
the inside of the back. It is the kidney fat. 

As stated above, cuts as sho\\n in the diagrams herewith correspond to 
those of which analyses are reported in the table beyond, l)ut do not attempt 
to show the different methods of cutting followed in markets in different parts 
of the United States. 

Delivery of Fresh Meat to Consumers.— Perhaps the most im])ortant aid 
to the manufacturer, as well as a protection to the consumer, which modern 
science has offered to the public is the possibility of delivering fresh meats to 
consumers at a low temperature. A well equipped abattoir is provided with 
apparatus by means of which a constantly low temperature may be maintained 
in the room where the fresh meat is kept after the preparation described 
above. When the meats are to be distributed over long distances refrigerator 
cars or boats are provided where low temperature may be maintained. 

Roast Beef. — The parts of the beef which are used for roasting are 
shown in the diagram, comprising a considerable portion of the hind quarter 
of the beef and part of the ribs. The roast is perhaps the most important o{ 
the parts of the beef for edible purposes. The average composition of the 
edible part of roast beef (before cooking) is given below : 

Water, 60.14 percent 

Solids, 3q. 86 

Nitrogen, 4.47 " 

Phosphoric acid, 54 " 

Sulfur, 26 " 

Fat, 10.48 " 

Ash 1.30 " 

Protein, 27.05 " 

Beefsteak. — The most important parts of the beef next to the roast are 
the parts used for steak. Beefsteaks have different names, such as tenderloin 
and sirloin, and when the latter two are joined together by the bone the whole 
is called porterhouse. There are also round steaks and rump steaks which 
are less highly prized portions of the meat, but in nutritive value are probably 
quite as valuable as the others mentioned. The average composition of 
the edible part of a large number of samples of beefsteak is given in the 
following table :-!^ 

* Means of numerous analyses in Bureau of Chemistry. 



22 MEATS. 

Water, 63.95 percent 

Solids, 36-05 

Nitrogen, 4.54 

Phosphoric acid, 59 

Sulfur, 27 

Fat, 5.93 

Ash, 1.48 

Protein,. 28.37 

It is seen that the roast beef contains less water, less protein, and decidedly 
more fat than the steak. 

Roast Lamb. — The parts of the lamb which are used for roasting are 
usually the hind quarters, although all of the parts are roasted at times. The 
average composition of a number of samples of lamb roast is given in the fol- 
lowing table:* 

Water, 58-56 percent 

Solids, 41-44 " 

Nitrogen, 4.91 " 

Phosphoric acid, 61 " 

Sulfur, : : .28 

Fat, 9.12 " 

Ash, 1.30 " 

Protein, 30.71 " 

Lamb chops or mutton chops are the short ribs with attached flesh of 
lamb or young sheep. They are considered to be the most desirable part of 
the young sheep or lamb for edible purposes. The average composition 
of the edible portion of a number of samples of lamb chops is given in the 
following table: 

Water, 63.98 percent 

Solids, 36.02 

Nitrogen, 4.35 " 

Phosphoric acid, 61 " 

Sulfur, 24 

Fat, 7.09 " 

Ash, 1.49 " 

Protein, 27.18 " 

Roast lamb, as shown by the above data, has less water, more fat, and 
more protein than lamb chops. 

Preservation of Fresh Meats. — After delivery the meats are at once 
consigned to refrigerator departments in the markets, where they are preserved 
until they pass into the consumer's hands. Thus, a properly fattened, properly 
slaughtered, and properly dressed piece of fresh meat may be brought into the 
consumer's hands in a manner at once unobjectionable and at the same time 
one which secures it admirably from contamination of any kind. So perfect 
are these means of transportation that fresh meat may be sent not only from 
city to city but across the sea, and reach the consumer as near perfection as 
human ingenuity can devise. 

* From numerous analyses made in the Bureau of Chemistry, 



LENGTH OF STORAGE. 



23 



Length of Storage. — The question of how long meat can be safely 
kept in cold storage of this kind is one which has not been decided. It may 
be said, however, that the period should not be extended any longer than is 
necessary and that the consumers of meat should be provided in ordinary times, 
if transportation is undisturbed, with practically fresh meat. It is evident 
that if the principal meat-packing centers are Chicago, Omaha, and Kansas 
City the cities and parts of the country remote from these localities must 
have meat somewhat older than those which are near by. If we pass to 
distant countries, as for instance, Europe, where fresh meats are received 
from the United States or even from Australia, the time elapsing between 
slaughter and consumption must necessarily be long. Thus the length of 
time in which meat should be left in cold storage after it is properly matured 
depends upon its geographic distribution and is not a matter to be decided 
arbitrarily. 

When meats are not only kept in cold storage for transportation Ijut are 
actually frozen, as is often the case, they can, of course, be kept for a much 
longer time than when subjected merely to a low temperature at or slightly 
above the freezing point. For this reason meats that are to be carried to a 
long distance and not to be consumed for a long time after preparation are 
usually frozen and kept so during transport. 

Effect of Low Temperature on Enzymic Action. — Attention has 
been called to the fact that low temperature does not inhibit enzymic action, 
and, therefore, it must be admitted that this continued activity must gradually 
deteriorate the quality of the product. The question, therefore, which is the 
most important is not how long can meat be kept in a frozen condition but 
how short a time must it be kept. In all cases, therefore, of this kind the con- 
sumer is entitled to know the length of time during which his meat has been 
kept frozen, and this desirable condition of affairs is easily secured by the 
necessary local, state, and national inspection already mentioned. 

Disposition of Fragments Arising From the Dressing of Beef. — It is 
evident that the fragments of sound, wholesome meat which is dressed for 
delivery to commerce are themselves edible and hence there can be no hygienic 
or other objection to preparations made from these fragments, such as sausage 
and other minced and comminuted meats which appear upon the market. 
In other words, the consumer is entitled to know that because a piece of 
meat is comminuted is no reason for supposing that it is not edible. 

Sausage, mince meat, comminuted meat, potted, canned, and other meats 
or preparations from these sound, clean, edible fragments, necessarily rejected 
in the process of preparing fresh meats for curing and for consumption, are 
entitled to the same consideration and may be looked upon with the same 
certainty of purity by the consumer when properly inspected and prepared 
as the larger pieces. 



24 MEATS. 

The possibility of detecting any effects of disease in meats by inspection 
at the time of or after deHvery is very remote and therefore the inspection 
before kilhng and during the process of manufacture should be a most rigid 
one in the case of these fragments. Such inspection and certification would 
restore public coniidence in the purity and hygienic properties of these 
meats which not only are nutritious but by the spicing and condimental 
treatment which they receive are rendered highly palatable and desirable. 

DETECTION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF MEAT. 

When meats are in large pieces they may be recognized by their anatomi- 
cal characteristics. In order that this may be done, however, the piece of 
meat must either be of a sufficient size to be recognized by its shape and 
general appearance or must have a bone of sufficient size to indicate its 
anatomical character. 

According to the German law pieces of meat of less than eight pounds 
in weight are not supposed to be large enough to be recognized anatomically 
or otherwise with certainty. This, however, is a matter which pertains more 
to the meat of animals from which the bone is taken rather than to its actual 
size. It requires some little expert knowledge of the anatomy of animals in 
order to distinguish these pieces, but one who is in the habit of purchasing or 
cutting meats acquires this knowledge without any special study. 

Odor and Taste. — Each kind of meat may also be detected both by its 
odor and taste, as well as by its physical appearance and shape. Beef, mutton, 
pork, and other meats in a proper state of preparation and preservation have 
characteristic odors and flavors by which they are easily detected. One of 
the common faults of cooking is the putting together of meats of various 
kinds in the same oven, by means of which the odors become so intermingled 
that in small pieces even the experienced taster may not always be able to 
discriminate between them. 

Detection of Meat by Microscopic Appearance. — Meats are so nearly 
related histologically that the microscope is not a certain means of detecting 
the different varieties. Were this the case it would be easy to identify the 
different kinds of meat which may be found in a finely comminuted mixture. 
The expert microscopist may have difficulty in discriminating between differ- 
ent microscopic portions of meat, but the microscope is of practically no advan- 
tage to any but an expert and not a very great advantage to him. The fibers 
of some animals vary in size, coarseness or fineness of texture, and other 
characteristics as much as fibers do from different animals. 

Detection by Chemical Examination. — The most satisfactory method 
of detecting meats is by means of their chemical examination. There are 
Uvo distinct points which are kept in view in a chemical examination. One 



DRIED MEAT. 



25 



is the presence of glycogen, which in quantities of more than one percent is 
characteristic of horse meat. Unfortunatel}-, this test can onh' be appHed to a 
meat in practical!}- a fresh state, as the glycogen is rapidly changed into other 
forms of carbohydrate substances, which makes it difficult to identify. The 
chemical examination, therefore, which is of the most \aluc is that which is 
performed upon the fat. The fat of different animals has different physical 
and chemical characteristics. The fats crystallize in different forms and 
have different melting points, — also the fatty acids derived therefrom. They 
absorb different quantities of iodin and bromin, and have other ])hysical anfl 
chemical properties which are peculiar to each variety. 

A careful examination of the fat, therefore, will lead to an ap|)roximate 
degree of knowledge concerning the character of the flesh from which it has 
been derived. For instance, lard and beef fat are easily distinguished from 
each other. In case a minced meat is made wholly of one kind of flesh or of 
one kind of animal the chemical examination of the fat will, with a considerable 
degree of certainty, lead to its identification. In the same manner, if a minced 
meat be made up of equal parts of two different kinds of animals the charac- 
teristics of the fats will lead to the identification of the two sources of meat. 
If, however, one kind of meat be mixed in only a small pro])ortion, sav 10 or 
15 percent, of another, the chemical methods of separation are not to be 
relied upon. None of these chemical or physical methods, unfortunately, is 
of value in the hands of any but an expert, and, therefore, cannot be regarded as 
a common means of identification. For this reason the only common manner 
of identification of the kinds of meats which are sent out to the consumer 
at large must consist in the general knowledge of their anatomical, ph}sical, 
palatable, and gustatory properties outlined above. 

In all cases the consumer must eventually rely upon the official inspection 
and the label which accompanies the meat or which should accompany it. 

Dried Meat. — A very effective method of preserving meat is practiced 
in certain of the arid regions of the country by exposing it to the dry air and 
sunlight. Meats prepared in this way are often called "jerked" meats. 
The small amount of aqueous vapor in the air is not sufficient to maintain the 
life of the ordinary fermentative germs, and they are, therefore, destroyed by 
desiccation. Meat which is exposed under such circumstances does not 
become infected with any fermentative germ, and the moisture which it con- 
tains is rapidly given off in the dry air surrounding it. For this purpose the 
meat is cut into thin strips and suspended by appropriate means in the air 
and exposed to the direct sunlight. In a short time the moisture disappears, 
and the hard dry pieces keep indefinitely in certain arid regions of this country. 
The meat also maintains a fair degree of palatability and practically all of its 
nutrient properties, so that when properly cooked it is a palatable and nutri- 
tious dish. Probably of all the methods of preserving meat this one is the 
least open to objection, since not even spices or condimental substances are 



26 MEATS. 

necessary in order to preserve the meat from decay. By reason of the change 
in its physical appearance, however, which makes it less attractive, this method 
is not likely to come into general use in the ordinary preservation of meat. 

Dried beef is also prepared by preserving the meat by condimental 
substances and, instead of placing it in brine, drying it artificially. Chipped 
or dried beef is a common article of commerce and is prepared in the manner 
described above. This meat, however, has already been treated with condi 
mental substances, and hence the drying is only one of the means of preserva- 
tion. Dried or chipped meats are often smoked also as well as desiccated, so 
that in their preparation more than one method of preservation is employed. 

Pickled Meats. — The method of preserving meats in a liquid environment 
is sometimes called pickling. All kinds of meat are pickled in this way, but 
pork especially. The pickling brine may be simply made of common salt, 
though other substances, such as sugar, vinegar, and spices, are used. The 
brine also sometimes contains a chemical preservative which is highly objec- 
tionable on the general ground of the harmfulness of these substances. The 
preservative commonly used is either sulfite of soda or boric acid. The 
making of a pickled meat of this kind should be discouraged. The vinegar 
which is employed or acetic acid may be injected into the carcass before it is 
cut up. When the arteries or veins are filled with vinegar in this way it 
rapidly permeates to all parts of the meat and acts as an excellent and unob- 
jectionable preservative in all cases where an acid taste is desired. It is 
claimed that carcasses which have been injected with vinegar in this way are 
easily preserved, and require far less salt and other condimental substances 
than when not so treated. As vinegar is a condimental substance used every- 
where, and one which promotes digestion when used in proper quantities, 
the preservation of meats or the pickling of meats by a previous injection of 
vinegar is not objectionable. 



COMPOSITION OF THE FLESH OF PIGS. 

Extensive investigation of the composition of the flesh of pigs has been 
made in the Bureau of Chemistry (Bulletin 53). The pigs upon which these 
examinations were made were specially bred and fattened at the Agricultural 
P2xperiment Station of Iowa, and were prepared for the market by the most 
approved modern style of feeding. They were slaughtered according to the 
approved method and immediately, after proper preparation, the carcasses 
were placed in cold storage, where they were kept until removal for the purpose 
of dissection and preparation of the samples for analyses. Expert butchers 
from Washington were secured for the dissecting and dressing of the pigs in 
the manner in which it would be done for the best market. The pigs were of 
different varieties, namely, Berkshire, No. i; Tamworth, No. 2; Chester White, 
No. 3; Poland China, No. 4; Duroc Jersey, No. 5, No. 6, No. 7; Yorkshire, No. 8. 



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28 



MEATS. 



Preparation of Samples for Analyses. — The meat obtained from all of 
the cuts of the same kind in each sample was passed through a meat chopper 
two or three times in order to get an even, finely divided condition. A portion 
of known weight was then placed in a dish and dried in a steam oven at a 
temperature of boiling water or slightly above and heated until the fat had well 
separated so that it could be poured off into a flask, with care not to remove any 
of the water which may have separated with it. Small samples were removed 
before drying for the determination of the exact quantity of fat and water 
therein, and the results of these analyses were used for calculating the relative 
portion of the large samples. Samples of skin, bones, marrow, spinal cord, 
tendons, hoofs, and other parts of the animal were also carefully secured 
and subjected to analyses. In this way the whole animal was subjected to 
examination for analytical data, and at the same time each particular part of 
it, in so far as its relation to the market is concerned, was kept separated. 
In Table A are found the weight of the whole cut and the data relative to 
the preparation of the air-dried sample. 

The data show that there was a slight loss of water during the transit 
from Chicago to Washington. The part of the pig which has the largest 



TABLE B.— WEIGHTS OF PARTS FROM EACH CUT AND DATA RELAT- 
ING TO THE PREPARATION OF AIR-DRY SAMPLES. 



PIG No. I.- 



Names of Parts and Cuts. 



-BERKSHIRE. 

Weights of Parts. 
Total. 



From 
each cut. 



Meat (fat and lean) : Grams. 

Backs, 14,767.9 

Bellies, 8,230.6 

Hams, 9,407.9 

Shoulders, 8,448.2 

Feet, 325.3 

Spareribs, 1,683.8 

Tenderloins, 470.8 

Neck bones, 493-2 

Backbones, 704.0 

Trimmings, 7,021.5 



Tail,. 



291.7 



Bones: 

Backs, 

Bellies, 

Hams, 

Shoulders, . . . 

Feet, 

Spareribs,... 
Neck bones,. 
Backbones,.. 
Trimmings, . 
Tail, 



Total, 

Marrow, 

Total bones less marrow, . 



191.1 
81.4 
879.6 
693.8 
802.6 
528.2 
336.1 

833-5 
71.0 
27-1 



69.7 



Crams. 



51,844.9 



4,444.4 

69.7 

4,374-7 



Of entire 

pig- 
Percent. 



88.19 



0.12 
7-44 



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PREPARATION OF SAMPLES FOR ANALYSES. 



31 



percentage of fat is the meat of the tail, while the smallest percentage is found 
in the tenderloins. The largest percentage of water in any part of the meat 
is in the tenderloins and the smallest in the meat of the tail. 

Similar data were obtained for all of the other samples used, but the chemi- 
cal composition is so nearly the same that it is not advisable to repeat the data 
for the other varieties. The Berkshire for which the data are given may be 
taken as a fair representative of the composition of the varied parts of the meat 
of pigs. The comparative weights of various parts of the Berkshire pig 
are given in Table B. 

The data show that 88. ig percent of the weight of the carcass, after 
dressing, is composed of meat, fat, and lean, and 7.56 percent of bone. The 
complete data for the variety of Berkshire pig may be taken as a type for the 
other varieties and is given in Table C. 

The composition of the bone, marrow, skin, spinal cord, tendons, and 
hoofs of the Berkshire pig is shown in Table D. 

The percentages of the various parts of the original material of the Berk- 
shire pig are found in Table E. 



TABLE E.— REVISED ANALYTICAL DATA. 
PIG No. I.— BERKSHIRE. 
[Percents original material.] 



Names of Cuts and 
Parts. 



Meat: 

American backs,.... 

American bellies, 

Short-cut hams, 

New York shoulders, 

Four feet, 

Spareribs, 

Tenderloins, 

Neck bones, 

Backbones, 

Trimmings, 

Tail 

Bones, 

Marrow, 

Skin, 

Spinal cord, 

Tendons, 

Hoofs 







Nitrogenous Substances. 






Pro- 








\\ ATER. 


Fat. 


teids, 
insolu- 
ble in 

hot 
water. 


Gela- 

ti- 
noids. 


Flesh 
bases. 


Total. 


THIN.* 


.•\SH. 


32-27 


57-69 


7.00 


0.50 


0.91 


8.41 


0.15 


0.51 


37-27^ 


SI -93 


7.00 


0.56 


1.22 


8.78 


0.14 


O.S5 


6o.29t 


22.19 


14.00 


0.69 


1-15 


15.84 


0.65 


0.96 


54-97t 


29.01 


11.25 


0.81 


1-56 


13-62 


o.iS 


0.89 


61.28 


16.83 


12.19 


4.69 


2-34 


19.22 


0.61 


0.82 


52.54 


29.10 


13-44 


1-13 


1. 19 


15-76 


0-35 


1. 00 


68.06 


8.78 


18.56 


0.50 


1.06 


20.12 


0.49 


1-17 


55 '70 


27.92 


12.44 


0.7S 


1.06 


14.25 


0.68 


0.81 


52.83 


27.22 


14.38 


0.87 


1-44 


16.69 


0.26 


1.24 


29.68t 


62.00 


5-19 


0.69 


1.03 


6.91 


O.II 


0.41 


24 02 


68.23 


5-75 


0.56 


0.50 


6.81 


0.17 


0-39 


38.94 


11.67 


17-50 


0.38 


1-25 


19-13 


0.44^ 


26.12 


14.36 


81.51 


2.00 


0.19 


0.06 


2-25 


0.46I 




50.24 


17. II 


25-25 


6.69 


1-37 


33-31 


0.41 


0.63 


65-70 


26.76 


3-88 


0.69 


0.16 


4-73 


i-47§ 


0.40 II 


58.43 


13.40 


22.44 


4.44 


0.62 


27..50 


0-45 


1. 18 


41.09 


0.86 








58.00 


•• 


0-93 



99-03 
98.67 

99-93 
98.64 
98.76 
98.7s 
98.62 
99-36 
98.24 
99-11 
99.62 
96.30 
98.58 
101.70 
97.19 
100.96 
100.88 



* Lecithin in extracted sample only, unless otherwise noted. 

t Result of direct determination on original material. Other numbers in this column 
represent the sum of the percent of water removed in the preparation of sample and the 
percent of water remaining in the air-dry sample. 

t In fat extract. 

§ In fat extract, calculated from averages for like cuts. 

II Calculated from averages of like cuts. 



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32 



GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 



33 



The data for the entire dressed animal after the removal of the head, 
hoofs, lard, and kidneys are shown in Table F. 

General Conclusions. — The composition of the flesh of pigs has been 
given in detail for two reasons. First, because the data relative to this point 
are much more complete than those of any other tlesh product and were 
obtained in a more systematic way. In the second place, pork is one of the 
chief meat products of the United States, — the industry being one of great 
magnitude, and pork being a common article of diet am.ong all classes of 
people. Further than this, the data indicate the general character of fresh 
meat, and illustrate as well as that of any of the typical animals the nutritive 
value and properties of flesh. The study of pork, therefore, may be regarded 
as a typical study of meat products. It is quite as important that all people 
should be informed respecting the nature of the wholesome meat which they 
consume and its value as a diet as it is that they should be certain these meats 
are procured from healthy animals and in a sanitary way. These two classes 
of knowledge together give a complete scheme of information which the 
consumers in this and other countries are entitled to have. 

Pork, by many hygienists, is regarded as the least desirable of meat 
products, and it is not the purpose here to combat that idea. Granting, 
however, for the sake of argument, that pork is a less desirable meat food 
than those derived from cattle or sheep, that is all the more reason for know- 
ing particularly everything connected with it. Modern investigations have 
appeared to establish the fact that swine are less subject to those forms of 
disease, with the exception of trichinosis, which tend to infect the meat and 
make it unfit for consumption than cattle or sheep. The diseases to which 
swine are usually subject act quickly, as a rule, and are speedily fatal, as in 
the case of hog cholera, whereas the diseases most to be feared in cattle and 
sheep are those of slow activity and those of a nature which is often not 
revealed until slaughter, namely, tubercular diseases. In so far, therefore, 
as infection from disease is concerned, previous to slaughter, it appears that 
the flesh of swine is less objectionable and less open to suspicion than that of 
cattle or sheep. One of the chief objections to the use of pork in any form, 
whether fresh or cured, has been based upon the unsanitary habits of the 
animals themselves. With the modern methods of cleanliness and care, 
however, the conditions under which the pigs grow and fatten are, or should 
be, quite as sanitary as those surrounding cattle and sheep. The consumer, 
of course, has the right to insist upon such sanitary conditions and these, 
under present laws or those which are to be enacted, will doubtless be supplied. 
It is believed that in this country sanitary environments and a sanitary method 
of feeding will develop types of animals superior to those grown in other 
countries, where the population is denser and where the facilities for the 
proper growth and fattening of the animal are less abundant. It is hoped 



34 MEATS. 

that the general diffusion of knowledge respecting all food products among 
our people will aid greatly in securing these very desirable results. 



PRESERVED MEATS. 

Meats which cannot be eaten at the time of or soon after slaughter are neces- 
sarily preserved until the time of consumption. It is difficult to draw a definite 
line between a preserved and a fresh meat. A general distinction is the follow- 
ing: Fresh meat is meat which is prepared for consumption without the use 
of any condiment or preservative, without sterilization, and with none of the 
artificial methods of keeping, except cleanliness and a low temperature. 

The above definition, as will be seen, covers meat placed in cold storage. A 
special distinction, however, must be made in this case between meat placed 
in cold storage for the purpose of transportation only and meat placed in cold 
storage to be kept for an indefinite time. Where meats are prepared for con- 
sumption by slaughter and appropriate dressing and shipped long distances to 
the consumer the cold storage car, ship, and warehouse become a necessity. 
There is some reasonable limit for keeping such products, beyond which they 
should be differentiated from fresh meats. Whenever meats are kept in cold 
storage so long as to afford the opportunity for the growth of a mould, or under- 
go other changes of a chemical or physical character which distinguish them 
from the fresh products, they should be placed in a different class. Fresh meats 
may, therefore, be divided as follows: 

Class I. Meats intended for immediate consumption and passed to the 
consumer within, at the most, one week after slaughter. Class II. Cold 
storage meats, which are placed in refrigerators, frozen, and kept for a longer 
period than one week. There is evidently also a limit to the length of time 
which meat should remain in cold storage, no matter how low the temperature 
may be, since the action of organisms which produce decay cannot be entirely 
overcome. The exact limit at which frozen meats can be kept without becom- 
ing inedible has not been determined. W^ithout this determination, however, 
it is advisable that such limit should not be approached. Inasmuch as the 
supply of fresh meat is practically uniform, or can be made so by the dealer 
therein , there seems no good reason for the storage of meat in refrigerator com- 
partments for a longer time than is necessary for transportation and a reasonable 
time thereafter for passing into consumption, except in cases of emergency. 
It might be safe to say that no meat should be kept in a cold storage warehouse 
longer than a month after its reception. Numerous instances might be cited 
in which meat may be kept for a much longer time, but the question for the 
consumer is not how long a while meats can be kept but how soon they can be 
placed in his hands. In this connection it should not be forgotten that it is the 
opinion of perhaps the majority of hygienists and connoisseurs that fresh meat, 



CURING OF CONDIMENT AL SUBSTANCES. 35' 

especially beef, improves for a certain length of time in cold storage. It is 
probable that the fresh beef which is served to the people of the United States 
is on an average a month old, and is said to be improved by keeping this length 
of time. This is a question, however, which is still undetermined, and it de- 
serves a further investigation. Under present conditions it is well to know 
the truth respecting these matters and to realize that the fresh meat we get, 
such as beef and mutton, is not direct from the shambles but has been kept for 
at least four weeks in cold storage. 

Effect of Long Cold Storage. — It has been stated in semi-scientific publica- 
tions that the flesh of a mammoth incrusted in polar ice and presumably thou- 
sands of years old has been found to be intact and edible. This story, lacking 
corroboration, is hardly in harmony with known facts. The author had the 
opportunity of examining a quarter of beef which had been kept frozen in a 
warehouse for more than eleven years. This meat was found to be wholly 
inedible. It had an unpleasant and mummy-like odor, was light in fiber and 
color, having evidently lost a large part of its weight, and was of a character 
wholly unsuitable for consumption. This fact appears to show that eleven 
years is too long a time in which to keep meat frozen. In fact, it is scarcely 
worth while, from a practical point of view, to discuss so long a limit. Only the 
necessary time for the preparation and transportation of the meat is to be con- 
sidered, and the sanitary laws of the nation, states, and municipalities should 
undoubtedly regulate the time of cold storage and see that all packages of meat 
exposed for sale are plainly tagged as to the date of slaughter, in order that the 
consumer may know. 

In the consideration of the subject of preserved meats there are excluded all 
meats delivered in the fresh state for consumption and meats kept in cold 
storage in a fresh state during the necessary time of preparation and transporta- 
tion say, on the whole, from four to eight weeks. Meats kept longer than this 
may generally be considered as preserved meats, even when cold is the only 
factor active in their preservation. 

Method of Preserving Meats. — x\side from cold storage there are four 
methods in vogue for preserving meats. These may be classified as follows: 
(i) Curing with the aid of condimental substances; (2) treatment with chem- 
ical and non-condimental preservatives; (3) sterilization with heat; (4) drying. 
All of these, except the second, may be regarded as legitimate means of pre- 
serving meats. 

Curing with Condimental Substances. — This method of preserving meat 
has been practiced from the remotest antiquity. The chief condimental sub- 
stances employed are salt, sugar, vinegar, and wood smoke. With the proper 
technical skill and knowledge of the process, meats can be preserved in this 
way, and at the same time aromas and flavors developed which are considered 
most agreeable bv the consumer and which give an additional value to the 



36 MEATS. 

product. It is not to be claimed in any case that condimental preservatives 
add anything to the nutritive value of the product, except in so far as condi- 
ments themselves aid the digestion by exciting in a perfectly proper way the 
activity of the glands which secrete the digestive ferments. 

It is not the purpose here to describe the technical processes used. In gen- 
eral it may be said that the application of salt is the first process, and this is 
done as soon after the slaughter as it is possible to secure the proper cooling of 
the carcass, usually from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. The meat, properly 
cut into the forms known to commerce, is carefully packed and heavily salted, 
and allowed to remain for some time in contact with the salt or with the brine 
which is produced therefrom. The salt penetrates to the interior of the flesh 
and hardens, to some extent, the tissues, abstracting water therefrom, and, with- 
out being wholly germicidal in character, prevents the introduction of eggs of 
insects and the development of ordinary germ life. The salt, however, does 
not entirely inhibit the enzymic action which tends to ripen the meat and 
make it more palatable. It naturally gives to the meat the salty flavor which 
is demanded by the taste in a preparation of this kind. 

Sugar is used, if at all, always in connection with salt as a preservative for 
meats. It may be employed in the pure state, but is usually the yellow or low- 
grade sugar or molasses. It gives to the preserved meat, especially ham, a 
flavor and quality much appreciated by the consumer. 

The application of wood smoke is usually the last process after the meats 
are properly cured in salt and sugar. The pieces are suspended in a convenient 
room and underneath is built a fire of hard wood, which is kept smouldering 
as much as possible in order to produce the maximum of smoke and minimum 
of heat. Oak, maple, and hickory woods are most highly prized for this pur- 
pose, since they develop on burning a rich aroma which imparts to the flesh a 
delicate flavor. 

The object of curing the meat is, first, to prevent decay; second, to impart 
the flavor of the well known condiments mentioned above, and third, to favor 
the development of the enzymic action which has the effect not only of making 
the meat more aromatic than it otherwise would be, but also more pleasant 
to the taste. 

The curing of meat in this respect may be compared to the development of a 
cheese, except that the enzymic action in the case of meat is one of minimum 
extent, while in the case of cheese it is one of maximum intensity. In addition 
to the condimental substances above mentioned spices of different kinds are 
sometimes added. Vinegar is also used at times as a condimental substance 
and is, to a certain extent, also a preservative substance, but vinegar is chiefly 
used in the preservation of vegetable substances rather than meats in bulk. 
For meats which are spiced as well as preserved as above, vinegar is often used 
as one of the ingredients, intended as a condimental substance. No other 



PRESERVATIVES USED. 37 

substances than those mentioned above are necessary to the proper curing of 
meat, but convenience of application and certain other considerations have led 
packers of meats, when not prevented by law, to abandon the old methods to 
a certain extent and substitute what is known as the quick-aging process 
described below. 

Preservation by Means of Non-condimental Chemical Preservatives. 
— The use of non-condimental chemicals in the preservation of meat is practi- 
cally an industry of the last quarter of a century. Up to that time the use of 
non-condimental chemicals was practically unknown in the meat industry. 
The chemicals employed are those known as germicides. In the quantities 
used they neither impart a taste nor odor to a preserved meat, but by their 
germicidal properties prevent the development of organic ferments and thus 
make the preservation of meat far more certain and very much less expensive. 
By the use of some chemicals the salting, sugaring, and smoking of preserved 
meats may be done with very much less care, in a very much shorter time, and at 
a very greatly reduced expense. For this reason the practice has gained a great 
vogue, not as a means of benefiting the consumers, but rather as a means of 
enriching the packer and dealer. Chemical preservatives are also highly 
objectionable because they keep meats apparently fresh, while in reality 
changes of the most dangerous character may be going on. They thus prevent 
the display of the red light danger signal. 

Preservatives Used. — The principal chemical preservatives used in the 
curing of meats are borax and boric acid and sulfite of soda. There are many 
other chemical preservatives which have been employed, but these are by far the 
most useful, the most certain, and the most widely employed. Borax and boric 
acid, of the two classes, are by far the more common. Sulfite of soda is used 
more as a preservative of color, and is probably found more frequently on fresh 
than on preserved meats. Borax has the property of paralyzing fermentative 
action and thus securing immunity from decay. Its use, however, tends to 
diminish the palatability of the meat because of its restraining influence upon 
the condimental method of preservation described above. The meats are 
more quickly preserved, require less condimental substances, and the borax 
probably inhibits, to a certain degree, the enzymic action of a favorable kind, 
described above. 

The use of any kind of a chemical preserving agent on meat is most 
reprehensible, no matter what it may be. Unfortunately, experts dift'er 
respecting the influence of these chemical preservati\cs upon health. The 
users of chemical preservatives have employed experts of known fame and dis- 
tinction to testify in favor of these products, while the consumer, perhaps, is not 
able to go to the expense of securing expert testimony, and, therefore, as re- 
spects numbers of witnesses, at least, chemical preservatives have an advantage. 
In a case of this kind the accused must be considered guilty until proven in- 



38 MEATS. 

nocent. It is not sufficient to prove in a given case that borax is not injurious. 
If it be proven that it is injurious in a single case conviction must ensue. There 
is no doubt of the fact that the injurious character of borax, even in small 
quantities, has been fully established, and therefore any amount of testimony tO' 
the effect that in individual cases it has not produced injurious results is of no 
value whatever. If a citizen be robbed and in the course of the prosecution it 
be shown that there are a million citizens who have not been robbed by this 
criminal the evidence would be of no value. If it has been shown that the in- 
dividual citizen has been robbed the prisoner is convicted. No expert would 
testify that borax has never been injurious, — eyen those who appear in its. 
favor admit that, bvit plead that it is generally used in small quantities, and,, 
therefore, cannot be harmful. 

The Argument of Small Quantities. — The fallacy of the argument for 
small c_[uantities is so evident that it needs only to be presented in brief form to- 
show the intelligent and thinking people of this country the fallacy of the claims 
of experts in favor of chemical preservatives. 

The arguments which have been advanced in excuse of the use of preser- 
vatives when used in minute quantities have, perhaps, been more vigorously- 
urged for salicylic acid than for almost any other substance. This argument 
has been urged with such vigor and such ingenuity that a further reference 
may not be out of place here. The principle which is laid down is that a, 
substance which is injurious to health when added to foods, if not a natural 
constituent thereof, or if not added for condimental purposes, does not lose 
its power of injury to health because it is diluted or given in small quantities. 
The only change which is made is to mask the injurious effects produced — to- 
make them more difficult of ascertainment and impossible of measurement. 
The fallacy of the argument that small quantities of an injurious substance 
are not injurious may, perhaps, be best represented graphically. The accom- 
panying chart (Fig. 7) shows theoretically the normal and lethal dose of a 
food and a drug or, as in this case, a chemical preservative. The chart shows 
two curves, one representing a chemical preservative and one representing 
a food. The normal dose of a food is that quantity of food which maintains, 
a healthy adult body in equilibrium. It is represented in the chart on the 
right by the number 100. If the quantity of food necessary to maintain the 
equilibrium in a healthy adult body is slightly diminished, no apparent change 
is at first experienced and possibly even no discomfort. If, however, the 
quantity of food be still further diminished progressively, as indicated by 
following the curve down to the left, the point is finally reached when no food 
is given at all and death ensues, represented by o on the left hand of the dia- 
gram designated "Lethal dose." As the curve begins to deviate from the 
perpendicular on the right the degree of injury is very readily noticed and 
starvation or symptoms of starvation are set up. Thus if you follow the 



THE ARGUMENT OF SMALL QUANTITIES. 



39 



perpendicular on the right downward to the point 80 the divergence of the 
corresponding point of the cun^e is already measurable. As you descend to 
o the magnitude of the measurement increases. It requires but very little 
further illustration to show how easily the effect of diminishing the normal 
dose of a food can l^e measured immediately after the curve begins to vary 
appreciably from the perpendicular on the right. 

Let us now consider tlie perpendicular on the left, which is marked at 
the top under the term "Lethal dose," namely, a quantity of the added 
preservative sufficient to destroy life. The normal dose of such an added 
chemical preserv^ative is o and is shown at the base line to the right, marked 



LETHAL DOSE 

I001 



NORMAL DOS£ 




LETHAL DOSE 



75 NORMAL DOSE 



Fig. 7. — Graphic Chart Representing the Comparative Influences of Foods and 

Preservatives. 



•"Normal dose." If you add a very minute quantity of a chemical preserva- 
tive, the curve representing it varies so slightly from the horizontal base as to 
be impossible of measurement by ordinary means. If we follow along to 
the number 75 on the horizontal base we see the deviation of the cur\'e is 
sufficiently great to measure. At 50 it is still greater, at 25 still greater, while 
at the left of the basic line it is a maximum extending from o to 100, or the 
lethal dose. It is easy to show by mathematical data that no matter how 
small the quantity of an injurious substance or preservative it will still produce 
an injurious effect which may be infinitely small if the dose be infinitely small. 
It follows, then, as a mathematical demonstration that any quantity of an 



40 MEATS. 

injurious substance added to a food product must of necessity be injurious, 
provided it is in the nature of a drug and the body is in a perfectly healthy, 
normal condition. 

Hence the argument which has been so persistently urged in favor of a 
chemical preservative, that if in small quantities it is harmless, is shown to 
be wholly untenable. While there is no necessity for the addition of a harm- 
ful substance, where no particular benefit is secured thereby, and where there 
is no disturbance of the normal state of health, there can be no possible excuse 
of a valid nature to offer for the exhibition of even minute quantities. That 
these minute quantities would not be dangerous in so far as producing any 
fatal effect is concerned is conceded, but that in the end they do not produce 
an injury even in these small quantities is certainly to be denied. The course 
of safety, therefore, in all these cases is to guard the opening of the door. 
If the admission of small quantities is permitted, then there can never be any 
agreement among experts or others respecting the magnitude of the small 
quantity, and continued litigation and disagreement must follow. On the 
other hand, when the harmfulness of any substance which it is proposed to 
add to food is established and no reason for its use can be given other than 
the convenience, carelessness, or indifference of the manufacturer, the exclu- 
sion of such bodies entirely from food products follows as a logical, sequence 
and a hygienic necessity. 

The third method of preparing or preserving meat is by sterilization. Of 
all the various methods which have been proposed there is probably none which 
is, theoretically, so free of objections as the preservation of meat by sterilization, 
in other words, as canned meats. The only important thing is that the raw 
material used in canning must itself be meat free of disease, obtained under 
sanitary conditions, and subjected to sterilization before any fermentation or 
decay takes place. Pure, wholesome meat thus prepared and thoroughly 
sterilized wull remain in an edible condition for a reasonable length of time. 
Unfortunately, as has has been shown in the testimony respecting the packing 
industry of the country, canned meats have not always been selected solely for 
freedom from disease and for palatability. The question of diseased meat is 
discussed in another part of this book and, therefore, may not be taken up here. 
There have been used for canning purposes the fragments and, perhaps, in- 
edible portions of carcasses, and this practice cannot be too severely condemned. 
This does not mean that these fragments and portions of carcasses are not 
fit for food, but they should be collected, prepared, and sold as such with plain 
notices to the consumers of their origin. A cheaper supply of beef would thus 
be furnished for those in humbler circumstances, and no imposition of any kind 
would be practiced because the nature of the meat would be fully understood. 

Preparation of Meat for Canning. — In the following description it is 
understood that the ordinary processes of canning sound, properly prepared 



PARBOILING. 



41 



beef are described. The question of the canning of improper samples is re- 
served for the remarks on adulterations. 

There is no uniform practice followed, as has been carefully ascertained by a 
study of the different packing houses and processes for selecting and j)reparing 
meats for canning. The exigencies of trade determine this to a greater or less 
extent. When there is a demand in the fresh state for all the beef which can be 
supplied the canning industry will necessarily suffer. When there is a surplus 
of beef offered for sale or in case of war, where the army contracts for large 
quantities of canned meat, the opposite conditions probably prevail, and the 
best meats are used for canning purposes and those of a less desirable quality 
offered for sale in the fresh state. The portions of the carcass used, as 
described in Bulletin 13, Part 10, Bureau of Chemistry, depend, to some ex- 
tent, upon the market of fresh beef. All of the meat on the fore quarter, ex- 
cept the shank and the "third rib," is usually canned, and in some cases those 
portions are not reserved. The cheaper cuts from the hind quarter are also 
used for preserving purposes. Very fat, and therefore easily marketed, car- 
casses are not used for canning purposes except in case of unusual demand 
as above stated. There are two reasons for this, one of which has already 
been outlined, namel}-, that such meat brings a better price in the fresh state, 
and, in the second place, lean meat has a better appearance in the canned state 
than the fat meat. For these reasons, in the proper preparation of the meat 
for canning, the more fatty portions, together with the gristle, are removed and 
sent to other parts of the factory for making up into other kinds of food. 

The meat having been selected, it is cut into pieces of approximately from one 
to four pounds in weight, according to the size of the tins in which it is to be 
])laced. It is important, for the purpose of appearances, that the size of the 
pieces of meat in each tin be approximately the same. Also for the process 
of sterilization the pieces of meat should be practically the same size, so that they 
can all be thoroughly sterilized at the same time. If the pieces be of different 
sizes the small ones would become thoroughly cooked and disintegrated before 
the large ones became thoroughly sterilized, and thus the mass which would be 
presented to the view on opening the can would be unpleasant to the sight. 

Parboiling. — After the pieces have been selected and dressed they are par- 
boiled before being sterilized. The time of parboiling varies in different pack- 
ing establishments from eight to twenty minutes, according to the size of the 
pieces of meat. In some cases a uniform time for parboiling is prescribed, 
irrespective of the size of the pieces. One of the principal reasons for parboil- 
ing the meat is to secure the shrinkage, which always takes place on heating, 
before the meat is placed in the tins. 

The experiments have shown that meats when put in tins in a fresh state 
and sterilized shrink to about two-thirds of their original volume. Parboiling 
is, in the essence, a process of shrinking. When the meat is put at once into 



42 MEATS. 

boiling water there is less loss of protein matter than when the meat is placed 
in cold water and heated gradually. The substances removed in parboiling 
are water, fat, soluble mineral matter, and the meat bases. The fat is removed 
by becoming rendered, and rises to the surface where it can be skimmed 
off. A little over one percent of the protein content of meat is lost by par- 
boiling while the total meat bases lost amount to almost one-third of the total 
quantity contained in the meat. Of mineral matter in the meat as high as 50 
percent is lost in parboiling. 

By shrinking, parboiling tends to make a more concentrated article and thus 
favors transportation. Practically the nutritive value of a pound of properly 
canned beef is about one-third greater than that of one pound of the fresh beef 
of the same kind. Hence parboiling may be regarded as a perfectly legitimate 
and desirable process without which the beef could not be properly prepared 
for canning. 

Tinning. — After the meat is properly parboiled it is placed in the tins either 
by machinery or by hand. To each tin is added a small quantity of a liquid 
preparation made by the canners and known as soup liquor. This liquor 
generally contains salt, and sometimes a little sugar or molasses. The compo- 
sition of soup liquor is as follows : 

Solids, 92 percent 

Protein, 09 " 

Meat bases, 2^ " 

Ash, 28 

Salt, II 

Water, 98.37 " 

This soup liquor may be regarded as a thin soup. The origin of the liquid 
analyzed above was not disclosed, and, therefore, no expression can be made of 
the way in which it was formed. It was probably made from soup stock, namely, 
the waste meat and bones of the factory. There is no objection to a soup liquor 
of this kind provided it is made from sound, clean, and wholesome material. 
There are two reasons for adding this liquid, namely, to fill up the space which 
would otherwise exist between the pieces of meat and thus aid in the preservation 
of the material, and, second, to add a condimental substance which makes the 
contents of the tin more palatable. 

Sterilization. — After the cans are filled in this way and closed by soldering 
or otherwise they are placed in retorts which are composed of strong iron or steel 
boilers, properly covered and secured, and when these boilers are full they are 
subjected to the action of steam heat under pressure. Usually a small hole is 
left in the can through which any gas, air or other kind, is expelled from the can. 
As soon as everything is complete the retorts are opened and the cans are sealed. 

In all cases, however, after sealing the cans they are subjected to a second 
heating at a temperature of from 225 to 250 degrees F. The time of heating 
varies from one to two hours. After removal from the retorts the cans are washed 



EFFECT OF PARBOILING. 43 

with a spray of cold water for several hours, and they are then dried, painted, 
and labeled. 

The above is a general description of the process employed which, however, is 
varied to some extent in different packing houses. 

A modification of the above method consists in exhausting the cans in vacuo 
and automatically sealing them in the exhausted state, thus removing all air 
and other gases therefrom. The cans are then placed upon an endless con- 
veyor and dipped into an oil bath at a temperature of 240 degrees, the speed of 
the conveyer being so regulated that the cans remain in the bath a sufficient 
length of time to complete sterilization before being carried out at the op- 
posite end. After passing through this bath they are carried automatically into 
another bath consisting of a solution of carbonate of soda and, finally, into a 
bath of pure water. The cans are then painted and labeled as originally 
described. 



SPECIAL STUDIES OF METHODS OF CANNING BEEF MADE IN 
BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY. 
Composition of Beef Used for Canning. — Samples of fresh beef in- 
tended for canning purposes, and examined in the Bureau of Chemistry, 
have the following composition: 

Water, 7i-i7 percent 

Insoluble protein, 13-87 " 

Globulins, 1.38 " 

Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin, 1.31 " 

Meat bases, i .09 " 

Fat, 9.89 

Ash, 96 " 

Salt, 04 

Undetermined, ^;^ " 

The sample, of which the above data are representative, was secured from a 
mass of meat weighing 356 pounds, after passing through a sausage grinder 
and being thoroughly mixed. The class of cattle which are sold under the term 
" canners" on the Chicago market bring the lowest prices of any edible animals 
offered for sale. This would indicate that canned beef is not of as good quality 
as the ordinary beef bought on the market. 

Effect of Parboiling. — A similar lot of meat secured in the same way 
and from the same carcass weighed 358 pounds and was parboiled as fol- 
lows: The meat was placed in water in a steam-jacketed tank, the tem- 
perature of which stood at 196 degrees F. The reduction in the temperature 
caused by the meat was restored by heating the contents of the retort, and it 
was kept at 196 degrees F. for 15 minutes. It is thus seen that this parboihng 
was accomplished at a temperature below the boiling point of water. After the 
parboiling was completed it was found that the meat weighed 235 pounds, 
showing a net shrinkage in weight of 123 pounds. This sample of meat v^ 



44 



MEATS. 



then tinned in two-pound cans with the addition to each can of two ounces of 
canning jelly of the following composition: 

Water, 95- 18 percent 

Protein, 1.75 " 

Common salt, 2.85 " 

Ash, 22 " 

After sterilizing, the cans were opened and the contents subjected to analysis. 
The data obtained are as follows: 

Water, 62.47 percent 

Total protein, 24.88 

Insoluble protein, 22.25 

Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin, 2.63 

Meat bases, 1.15 

Fat, 9.87 

Ash, 91 

Salt, 19 

Composition oj Parboiling Water. — The liquor, after parboiling the above 
sample, weighed 2S0 pounds and had the following composition: 

Water, 99- 1 2 percent 

Protein, 06 " 

Meat bases, 25 " 

Ash, 25 " 

Salt, 05 

The above data show that the general effect of parboiling upon the canned 
meat is to diminish its content of water. Only a small quantity of the soluble 
proteids is found in the liquor, and the other principal constituents removed, aside 
from water, are the meat bases and mineral content or ash. The fat in the 
soup liquor was not determined because it rises to the surface and is not in any 
sense a constituent of the liquor itself. Considerable quantities of fat were re- 
moved in parboihng, the amount depending largely upon the temperature. 
At a low temperature of parboiling, such as described, the amount of fat se- 
cured is far less than when the temperature of parboiling is higher. 

Table Showing the Comparative Effect of Parboiling and Sterilizing upon 

THE Fresh Beef. 



Constituents. 



Water, 

Protein, 

Meat bases,.. . 

Fat, 

Ash, 

Salt, 

Undetermined 
Total,. 



Fresh Beef. 



Lbs. 
254.8 

59-3 
3-9 

35-4 

3-4 

.1 

1.2 

358^ 



Extracted by 
Boiling. 



Lbs. 
122. 1 
.1 

•7 
12.2 

•7 



Added rN 
Canning. 



Lbs. 
14.1 



Composition 
OF Canned 
Beef as De- 
termined BY 
Analysis. 



Lbs. 
146.8 

58.5 

2.7 

23.2 

2.1 

•4 

1-7 

235-4 



PARBOILING. 



45 



Preparation oj Canned Beef with More Intensive Parboiling. — In another ex- 
periment, determining the effect of the changes produced upon the fresh meat, 
more vigorous preparatory operations were performed. Samples were secured 
from eight healthy carcasses for use in this determination. Half of the sample 
was reduced to sausage and secured for analysis as described, and the other 
submitted to parboiling, sterilizing, and analysis. 

Composition of the Sample of Fresh Meat. 

Water, 69.33 percent 

Total protein, 1 6.81 " 

Insoluble protein, 12.69 " 

Globulins, 3.06 " 

Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin, 1.06 " 

Meat bases, 1.12 " 

Fat, 10.68 

Ash, I.I 3 " 

Salt, 24 

The original sample represented over a thousand pounds. The opposite 
sides of the carcasses were prepared for canning and produced the following 
amount of articles as sold on the market : 

Total weight of half carcasses, 1,761 pounds 

3 ribs, 53 " 

5 rolls, 43 " 

5 loins, 166 " 

3 tenderloins, 13 " 

3 sirloin butts, 28 " 

3 boneless strips, 24 " 

8 rump butts, 36 " 

8 flank steaks, 8 " 

8 kidneys, 9 " 

24 beef hams, 261 " 

Shank meat, 85 " 

Soft bones, 198 " 

Shank bones, 107 " 

Tank tallow, 132 " 

Canning meat, 598 " 

The above data show that only about one-third of the whole carcass is suit- 
able for canning purposes. The best and juiciest pieces, it is noticed, are cut 
away and sold for other purposes. In explanation of the above data it should 
be stated that only the fore-quarters of the carcass were used and not the whole 
carcass. 

The aboveisanotherevidenceof the fact that canned meat is not of first-class 
quality. This, however, does not imply that it may not be made of healthy 
animals nor that it is not nutritious. The canning of low grade meats tends to 
raise the price of the higher grades. 

Parboiling. — The parboiling of this sample was accomplished in the follow- 
ing manner: The meat was first placed in cold water, 50 degrees F., and 
heated by means of injected steam. In five minutes the temperature had 
reached 122 degrees F., and at the end of eleven minutes the boiling temperature 



46 MEATS. 

was reached and continued for one hour. The soup licjuor resulting from the 
parboihng weighed 1,500 pounds and had the following composition: 

Water, 99.08 percent 

Protein, 09 " 

Meat bases, 23 " 

Ash, 28 

Salt, II 

These data show that, as in the other cases, the chief extraction from the 
meat during parboiling is water and the next most important removal is of 
meat bases and mineral matter or ash. After sterilization in the usual way the 
cans were opened and the canned beef subjected to analysis. The composi- 
tion of the canned beef was as follows: 

Water, 56.18 percent 

Total protein, 31-57 " 

Insoluble protein, 27.94 " 

Proteoses, peptones, and gelatin, 3.63 " 

Meat bases, 1.44 " 

Fat, 7.72 " 

Ash, 82 

Common salt, 04 " 

Composition of the Fresh and Canned Meat. — Below is found a table simi- 
lar to that already given for the other sample, showing the composition of 
^'■esh beef and the resulting canned beef. 



Constituents. 



Fresh Beef. 



Extracted by 
Boiling. 



Water, 

Proteins, 

Meat bases, . . . 

Fat, 

Ash, 

Undetermined, 

Total,.. 



Lbs. 
414.6 
100.5 
6.7 

63-9 
6.8 

598 



Lbs 

243 
I 

3 
39 



Added in 
Canning. 



Lbs. 
12.9 



Composition 
OF Canned 
Beef as De- 
termined BY 
Analysis. 



Lbs. 

184.3 

lOI 

4.6 

24.7 

2.6 

2.8 

320 



From the above table it is seen that the shrinkage during parboiling amounts 
to 46.49 percent of the weight of the fresh meat. Of this shrinkage 82.85 per- 
cent is water, 14. 11 percent is fat, 1.51 percent ash, and 0.82 percent meat 
bases. It is noticed that more than half of the water originally found in the 
meat is extracted by parboiling. 

It seems rather anomalous that boiling a substance with water would extract 
water from it, but in the case of meats it is seen that half the water, or even 1 
more, which a meat contains is extracted from it by boiling in water. 



CANNING OF BEEF WITHOUT PARBOILING. 47 

The two samples given are extreme cases in the method of preparing meats for 
canning. In the first instance the meat is placed at once into hot water just be- 
low the boiling point and kept there for only a short time. In the second case 
the meat is placed in cold water and is brought to the boiling point and main- 
tained there for one hour. In the last case the low temperature of the water in 
which the meat was originally placed favors the extraction of a portion of the 
soluble protein matter, namely, albumins, globulins, etc., while, on the other 
hand, the long-continued boiling to which it was subjected tends to decompose 
the connective tissues of the meat and causes the loss of small particles of the in- 
soluble protein thus separated by disintegration. Although in the last case 
the shrinkage was much greater than in the preceding experiment, practically 
no insoluble protein matter was extracted, mechanically or otherwise. 

Canning of Beef without Parboiling. — To determine the amount of shrink- 
age which takes place and the general effect which is produced by canning 
meats without parboihng, samples were prepared, sterilized, and canned in 
the usual way, with the exception of the omission of parboiling. On opening 
the cans it was found in each case that the meat had shrunk to about two- 
thirds of its former volume and that the place was occupied by a liquid con- 
taining a number of particles of solid matter. The appearance of the sample 
was much less inviting than that of meat canned after parboiling. 

An analysis of the sample was made, with the following results: Total weight 
of sample, 31 ounces; weight of canned meat, 21 ounces. 

Water, 63.83 percent 

Protein, 27.25 " 

Meat bases, 1.09 " 

Fat, 4.62 

Ash, 1. 01 " 

Salt, 04 " 

Undetermined, 1.20 " 

Composition oj Liquid. — The liquid in the can was examined with the fol- 
lowing result: Weight of liquor, 10 ounces. 

Solids, 6.93 percent 

Protein and gelatin, i .94 " 

Meat bases, 1.84 " 

Ash, 1.22 " 

Salt, 1. 15 

The above data show that the beef lost 32.06 percent of its weight in the 
canning, a little over half of which is water. 

It appears that less protein matter is extracted when the meat is parboiled 
by being plunged into boiling water than when it is packed in a can without par- 
boiling and subsequently subjected to the temperature of sterilization. In the 
former case the soluble proteins in meat near the surface are coagulated before 
they can diffuse into the surrounding water. In the other case, owing to the 



48 MEATS. 

low conductivity of meat, the temperature at the surface of the can penetrates 
slowly to the interior and the juices which are extracted from the meat carry 
with them protein matter in solution which is afterwards precipitated by heat 
and remains in the liquid as matter coagulated at the temperature of sterihza- 
tion. 

It is seen that parboiling has many advantages. It e.xtracts less of the 
valuable matter from the meat, it shrinks the meat before packing so that the 
tins contain more nutrient matter, and it improves the appearance of the meat 
to the consumer when opened. 

Relation of Canned to Fresh Meat. — In the following table is given the 
number of ounces of canned meat in a number of cans compared with the 
equivalent amount of fresh beef used in filling them: 

No. OF Can. Canned Beef, Equivalent to Fresh Beef. 

Ounces. Ounces. 

I, 29 44.2 

2, 29.9 42.6 

3> 28.5 38.7 

4, 12.6 19 

5. 30-5 57 

6, 30.6 50.9 

Means, 26.9 42.1 

It thus appears that a can of 26.9 ounces of beef contains, as an average con- 
tent, an amount of meat equivalent to 42.1 ounces of fresh beef, and retains 
practically all of the nutrient value of the larger quantity of fresh beef. 

Canned Ham and Bacon. — It seems unnecessary, as a rule, to can ham and 
bacon properly cured and transported in a suitable manner. There are occa- 
sions justifying the use of these products in tropical countries and in other places 
far remote from the sources of manufacture, and where the preservation of 
them, by reason of the character of the climate, is difficult. 

The proper preparation of these articles, packing in tins and sterilizing, makes 
it possible to send them to the most distant points and to have them consumed 
in the most unfavorable climatic conditions. Canned ham, as it is found upon 
the market, has a higher percentage of fat and a consequently lower per- 
centage of protein than canned beef. The ham is packed closely and the 
smaller pieces added for the purpose of filling up interstices between the 
larger pieces of meat and keeping the can full. It is reasonable to infer that 
the added meat is pork, although very probably it may not always be so. 

Composition of Canned Ham and Bacon. — The character of the canned 
ham and bacon upon the market may be illustrated by the composition of 
the following samples (these samples were purchased in the open market 
and are presumably representative of the products as commonly sold in the 
shops) : 



CANNED HAM AND BACON. 



49 



°i 



p|jo|i|0 uinjpog 



-qsv 






J- fOCO"-^ 



•i^J 



Q^^O fOiOiOiOiOt^iOrO fOX X f^ 



*(^'z-9XN)°i9JOJd 



> O O^vC X 



ro r^ "H vO "^ r>. r~>. 



lO to CO to fO N (O ' 



< 
w 

Q 

w 

<: 
u 

o 

o 



•PJOX 



;>g;^ 



t>. lOX ^ tT- CrX rO'- lOX 



- • r^r-^x X 



D ^OnO^O^O^CT^O^O^^O^O^^CT^ 



•puoinD uinipog 



■qsv 



*^o fOtofor^Ta-iouow o^o r^-x 



-sasBq jwj^ 


CS u0\O M QC a^vO •-• t->. CO W Ol o 


•uiui 
-ojq Xq pai-Bjidpaad 
spiajojd puv spiouijBia^ 


p. ct. 

0.38 

.62 

.56 

•75 

1. 19 

1. 00 

•44 

2.12 

4.62 

1.62 

■44 
.62 
1.56 


-sppjojd pa}-E|n3B03 




■(SZ-9XN) npiojj 


> -^ ■<*■ N -^vo tox mx OMO tJ- 
"-j CT* '^vq CT* r^ to r^x vo r^ tt 
_ . pj to t^od <> to w X »-< uS\o 06 to 

(5^„0)»-«-i«W«M -^tO M 



-sasuq iB3j^ 



-niLUOjq .iq pajEjidpajj 



m 1000 ■* CT- ro C 



O to CT-CO 00 O^ rn 






•spiajojd p3iT;]n2B03 



tjWtOCT^OvO'-'I^iOioOrjh^r^ 
.« ^ ^ lOC^<N t^tot^"-' CTO-IO 



?^ 



•F?ox 



t^ 10 n CO lox -^ -^GO -^ r^ o to 
q r^x o q ^^ o c-ao r^ o -sj- •-• 
n ro cj CO fO CO cs ci vO to "-• « w" 



•^X O O^O -<^ M CT CT r^ -^VO 



CN N VC ^ fO 



•aDUE;sqns aajj-jBj ui mjBjW 



•J3}B.V\. 



^coor^iowiO"^ 



^ r^vo vo vo 10 to r^-o N CN -o \0 r^ 
■^ Q o r^ to r^ fi-\o r^ ri- CT ro CT o 



Q, •*io-*'a-fOTt-fOto> 



ecu, rt_- 



_2 C_ O U , - 



- °2. 






rt :/) -3 — -I 



- .0 






I Lf, K t/2 C til 



5© MEATS. 

Adulteration of Canned Ham and Bacon. — From the above data it is 
seen that the products are probably true to name, and are actually ham and 
bacon. The principal adulterations which are found in these articles are 
preservatives and coloring matters. The coloring matter usually found is 
saltpeter which, in one instance, was present to the extent of one-tenth of one 
percent and the average quantity found was one-twentieth of one percent. 
Saltpeter is not used as a preservative, although it is often claimed by packers 
that such is the case. In the minute quantities in which it is employed it 
has little or no effect as a preservative if, indeed, it could be deemed a ger- 
micidal substance. The principal preservative which is found is boric acid. 
In fourteen cases examined, however, only two contained this preservative, 
which shows that there is no necessity for its use on any occasion. Under 
the new meat inspection law all meat products prepared for interstate and for- 
eign commerce are packed under direct supervision of the Department of 
Agriculture and the use of boron compounds is prohibited. 

Canned Tongue. — Several varieties of canned tongue are found upon the 
market known as ox tongue, lamb tongue, luncheon tongue, etc. The tongues 
of calves, steers, sheep, lambs, and swine are the ones which are usually canned, 
and they may be previously pickled before canning. The average composition 
of the canned tongue upon the market is shown from the following data based 
upon the examination of seventeen samples: 

Water, : 55.17 percent 

Fat, 20.23 

Protein, 19-43 

Meat bases, 1.23 

Glycogen, 24 

Total ash, 3.71 

Of which common salt, 2.90 

The data show that in the canning of tongue a large quantity of fat is 
present, more than the true part of the tongue contains. Nearly all of the 
samples examined contained saltpeter, the largest quantity found being 
.15 percent. 

Adulteration of Canned Tongue. — It is not probable that any meat, except 
the tongue itself, is used for canning, but the contents may not be true to name. 
The fat dressing employed is not specified, and probably its character and amount 
rest alone with the ideas of the manufacturer relative thereto. Presumably 
the fat should be of the same animal as the tongue. A critical examination of 
the fat will, however, reveal whether or not this is the case. 

Saltpeter is the most common adulteration, and is used solely to impart or 
preserve the red color of the fresh meat. Boric acid is also occasionally em- 
ployed. One of the samples contained boric acid. 

Without inspection of the process of manufacture, it is not possible to be 
assured of the sanitarv conditions of the meats which are sold as ca nned tongue 



POTTED MEATS. 



51 



and also of the sanitary conditions of the canning itself. These are all matters 
of the highest importance to the consumer, and should be attested by proper in- 
spection certificates. Under the new meat law only the proper articles can be 
certified by the officials in charge of inspection. 

Examination of Fat as a Test for Adulterations. — It is evident, from 
what has already been said, that the character of the fats which are used in the 
canning of preserved meats is not always the same as that of the meat to 
which they are added. A careful stufly has been made in the Bureau of 
Chemistry of the fats extracted from different canned meats. The chemical 
and physical characteristics of these fats are given in the following table: 



Source of Fat. 



Melting 
Point. 



Chilling 
Point. 



lODIN 

Number. 



Maumene 
Number. 



Degrees Bu- 

tyro-refrac- 

tometer. 



Canned roast beef, 

Canned smoked beCf, . . . 
Canned ham and bacon, 
Fowl, 



C.° 

36-5-43-9 
37.7-41.8 

23-6-30-5 
28.0-34.0 



C.° 
27.8-37.0 
22.0-29.0 
17.5-24.0 
12.0-36.5 



36.1-50.6 

SO-9-57-S 
48.5-68.2 
67.0-86.4 



C.° 
35.6-36.0 

39-8-43-S 
38.9-52.0 



47-0-55-5 
5I-0-58.5 
49.0-58.2 
49.0-62.5 



It has been noticed that the crystals deposited by the evaporation of the 
ether solution of chicken fat resemble beef stearin in shape, but are much 
smaller and more delicate. It is seen that the melting point of fat in ham and 
bacon is rather lower than in leaf lard. It is evident, therefore, that this 
fat is not lard or, at least, not wholly composed of the best lard, but prob- 
ably consists of the fat not usually employed for lard making. 

Potted Meats. — There is found on the market a large number of varieties of 
potted meat. It is difficult to describe in any scientific way these potted meats 
because the term "potted" is employed by all manufacturers to describe a 
mi.xture of a great many different articles, the exact composition of which is 
usually a trade secret. There is, apparently, an understanding among manu- 
facturers that the labels of potted goods are not intended in any way to indicate 
the variety of meat or principal meats contained in the package. In the ab- 
sence of any trade, sanitary, or chemical standard it is difficult to make any 
just criticism of the character of the potted goods upon the market. 

The principal object of mentioning them here is to inform the consumer of 
the probable character of the potted goods which he may consume, and to let 
him understand that it is by no means certain that the name of the meat upon 
the label describes the character of the meat which he is actually eating. The 
chief object in the manufacture of potted meat is to make a supply of uniform 
character and consistency, and properly spiced and flavored to attract and hold 
the patronage of the consumer. 

A certain degree of consistency is established by each manufacturer for each 
variety of potted goods made, and to obtain this consistence more or less fat 



52 MEATS. 

meat of some kind is added. It may thus be of some advantage to add the 
fat of pork rather than the fat of beef or mixtures of the two. It is claimed 
by many manufacturers that a single kind of meat does not give the desired 
flavor in potted and deviled goods. Therefore, meats of different origia 
are finely ground and mixed together, and a sufficient quantity of oil or fat 
added to secure the required physical consistence. For this reason cured 
meats, such as beef and pork, are often preferred for making potted and 
deviled meats because of the agreeable flavor and aroma which they impart 
thereto. These meats are therefore used in potting, although they cost more 
than corresponding quantities of fresh meat. In a character of goods so varie- 
gated as these it is impossible to lay down any rule which may guide the 
consumer in his choice. The widest latitude is left to the manufacturer, and 
the only real protection is in a strict inspection of the factory or factories where 
such goods are made. It is there only that the character of the materials em- 
ployed and the quality of the condiments or other substances added can be 
determined. The day is doubtless rapidly approaching when consumers will 
be perfectly protected in this matter, and when no canned, potted, or deviled 
meats of any description will be allowed to enter into commerce without 
bearing the certificate of competent inspection officers as to the kind of meats 
used, their sanitary character, etc. 

Potted meats should always be carefully sterilized and. the contents of the 
tins should be consumed as soon as possible after they are opened. 

Potted Beef. — Potted beef corresponds more closely to the character of 
the meat named on its label than do any of the other potted products. Of four 
samples of commercially potted beef examined in the Bureau of Chemistry 
only one appeared to contain any other meat than beef. The composition of 
the potted beef is shown in the table on page 53. 

Adulteration of Potted Beef. — From the following average data it is- 
seen that the principal adulteration in potted beef, assuming that the meat is 
beef, is starch. Two of the four samples contained starch, one more than 14 
percent and one more than 1 1 percent. The admixture of starch is evidently 
solely for fraudulent purposes, to increase the weight and bulk with a very 
much cheaper substance and one for which no necessity for the addition can be 
claimed. It also increases the quantity of water which the product will 
carry. Saltpeter was found in one of the four samples and boric acid in two. 
One of the samples contained a large quantity of tin, due probably to the 
action of the potted meat upon the tin lining of the can. 

Potted Deviled Meats. — The term " deviled meat " is applied to a mixture of 
finely ground meat with spices, condiments, and other substances, and, like the 
term "potted," is used rather to indicate a miscellaneous mixture than any 
single compound. 

All that has been said respecting the composition of potted meat applies 



POTTED DEVILED MEATS. 



53 



•puoiqa lunipog 



•qsv 



•4BJ 



■(Sz-9 XN) apiOJj 



•IT^loi 



•saAijcAjasajj 



•iuejSoi!^ jads[B)3ui -t.vEajj 



■puopp mnipog 



•qsi; iBjox 



•j3;ad}iBS 



■j'Bua;-BUi aajj-jB} 
'Xjp o; paiBjnDjBD 'ua3ojX|{) 



•qaiBJS 



•sasBq jBaj^ 



■uiuiojq Xq 
pajEjidpajd spp; 
-ojd puB spiouijBpo 



■ia}BM JOIJ 

ui a[qniosai spiajojj 



■(SZ-9XN) npjoj,! 



•sasBq jBaj^j 



•IBjox 



•JEj[ 



■aauBjsqns aajj-^Bj ni jajB^w 



•ja}BA\ 



ft,^o ■*« 



H^ to . roc^ 












ci;- 






. to dvt^ c 



■»-» to O O t^ 

Vj to -^ N O 

. 6 4 t^ n' 
v; ,)- o N " 

. . QO >-• rf in 



with equal force to deviled meat. 
If there be any difference at all 
it is understood by the term 
deviled that the spices and con- 
diments are more pronounced in 
character and greater in quantity 
and the miscellaneous character 
of the goods more pronounced. 
Under the terms of "deviled" 
and "potted" may be found 
every kind of mixed and miscel- 
laneous finely comminuted meat, 
flavored with all kinds of condi- 
mental substances and prepared 
so as to appeal as strongly as 
possible to the taste and desire 
of the consumer. 

It may be said, in connection 
with these goods, that there is 
no objection whatever to their 
manufacture and sale provided 
the meat used in their prepara- 
tion is sound and sanitary, the 
conditions of manufacture clean 
and free of infection, and pro- 
vided the fraudulent additions 
for the purpose of increasing 
bulk and weight are excluded, 
together with injurious preser- 
vatives and coloring matters, such 
as borax, saltpeter, sulfite of 
soda, etc. 

Potted and deviled are not 
the only terms, however, which 
are used to express miscellaneous 
mixtures of meat products. The 
term "pates" is also employed 
for a large class of goods, among 
which the principal ones are the 
familiar pates de foie gras, 
which should be made largely 
of fatty goose livers. 



54 MEATS. 

Composition of Pates. — The result of the examination of large quantities 
of pates in the Bureau of Chemistry indicates that they are made up principally 
of the meat of beef and pork. It is not quite certain in any of the cases that 
the highly prized livers of fat geese have been employed to any considerable 
extent. There are no forms of comminuted meats of any description which are 
so objectionaljle in name as those that are sold under the name of pates, es- 
pecially when they are ascribed to a particular composition, as is the case with 
pate de foie gras. * As has been remarked before, there is certainly no objection 
to the manufacture of these mixtures, but misleading statements concerning 
them are to be condemned. The manufacturer and consumer of pate de foie 
gras should establish some standard of the percentage of goose livers which they 
should contain, and each package should be accompanied by an olhcial certifica- 
tion that it has been inspected and found to be up to the standard. It is only 
in this way that the public can be protected against fraud and imposition. 
Where no descriptive word at all is used with the word pate there is no reason- 
able limit to be placed upon the kind of meat used, provided it is of a sound and 
sanitary character. The term pate itself means a mixture and, therefore, it is 
no deception and imposition upon the public to sell a pate of a miscellaneous 
character, provided it does not bear any false statement regarding origin or 
character. 

The mean composition of forty-three samples of pates and purees is found 
in the following data: 

Water, 45-87 percent 

Water in fat-free substance, 71.18 " 

Fat,. 35.41 

Protein, 11.92 " 

Meat bases, 82 " 

Starch, 7.44 " 

Total ash, 2.88 " 

Of which Sodium chloric! 97 "' 

From the above data it is seen that the pates are characterized by a verv high 
percentage of fat and a correspondingly low percentage of protein. A very large 
majority of the samples examined contained starch, the highest quantity found 
being 15.80 percent. Only two of the samples were found to contain saltpeter; 
six contained boric acid and three benzoic acid. Tin and zinc were found in a 
few cases. 

Principal Adulterations of Mixed, Miscellaneous, Potted, Deviled, 
and Comminuted Meats. — As has been observed in the analyses of the com- 
mercial articles which have been submitted it is evident that no detection of 
the adulteration of these minced meats with impure, fragmentary, diseased, or 
unwholesome articles is possible in so far as chemical analysis is concerned. 
A microscopic analysis also often fails to reveal the true character of the meats 
which have been used in the preparation of these products. Hence the adul- 



INDIRECT COLORIXG MATTER. 1^5 

teration of these goods with diseased, unwholesome, unfit, and unsanitary meats 
cannot be controlled nor even positively affirmed after the meats are prepared 
and canned. Such adulterations are doubtless frequent and are the most ob- 
jectionable. The only protection to the consumer is in a certificate of inspec- 
tion before preparation and packing. The consumer, by refusing to purchase 
such comminuted meats in the absence of such a certificate, would soon compel 
the manufacturer to secure official inspection and certification of his products. 

Adulteration with Starch. — One of the chief adulterants in sausages and 
prepared meats is starch. It has been said by some hygienists that starch is not 
an objectionable adulterant on hygienic grounds. This, however, is not 
strictly true. The injection of large quantities of starch into meat tends to un- 
balance a ration which is fixed with certain quantities of other food and tends to 
increase the proportion of starchy matter therein. There are many conditions 
of disordered digestion in which such increases of starch, unknown to the 
physician or patient or even known, are highly objectionable. Hence the use 
of starch as an adulterant in meat of this kind is reprehensible on hygienic 
grounds. The principal purpose for using starch is deception. Starch in- 
creases the bulk and weight of goods, and, in the process of cooking, prevents 
undue shrinkage. The consumer, therefore, thinks that he has secured a 
larger quantity and better quality of meat than he really has, and is, to this 
extent, defrauded and deceived. 

Preservatives. — The preservatives which are principally used in meat are 
borax, boric acid, sulfite of soda, and benzoic acid. All of these preserva- 
tives have been shown, by the work of many investigators, to be celeterious 
to health. They should be rigidly excluded from all meat as well as other 
food products. 

Coloring Matter. — Dyes are frequently used for coloring sausage and other 
minced meats. All such dyeing materials are reprehensible, both on account 
of the danger to health and deception. Preserved meats gradually lose the 
natural red tint of the fresh meat, and to that extent the color is an index of the 
time during which they have been preserved. Inasmuch as consumers prefer 
fresh meats preserved as short a time as possible, they are deceived and to 
that extent injured by the use of dyestuffs which impart to })reserve(I meats a 
fresh appearance. 

Indirect Coloring Matter. — Certain chemicals, which of themselves have 
no color, serve to fix and hold, or even accentuate, the natural color of meat. 
The two principal chemicals used for this purpose are salt]K^ter and sulfite of 
soda. Saltpeter is used generally in preserved meats to retain and accentuate 
the red color thereof. Sulfite of soda is used princiy)ally on fresh meats, where it 
acts both as a preservative and as a retainer of color. Sprinkled over the freshly 
cut surface of fresh meat, sulfite of soda preserves the red tint, and the customer 
thinks it has just been cut. In this way he is deceived, lioth of these sub- 



56 MEATS. 

stances are highly objectionable not only on account of deception but on ac- 
count of being injurious to health. In the case of saltpeter, the general opinion 
concerning its therapeutic action is that it is not a proper substance to mix 
with foods. It is no more than fair to the consumer, therefore, for the packer, 
if he deems it necessary to use bodies of this kind, to plainly state upon each 
package the character and quantity of preservatives and coloring matter 
employed. The consumer is then left to judge for himself whether or not 
he desires to eat these bodies. 

The principal objection to notifications of this kind is that the consumer, not 
being an expert as a rule, cannot form any intelligent opinion respecting the 
desirability of these substances in food. He is more apt to be guided by com- 
mon practice in this matter and by his own opinion than by any general prin- 
ciples of chemistry and hygiene. 

Potted Tongue.— The term "potted tongue" may apply equally to tongue 
of a single character, such as beef, lamb, pork, or swine, or the mixture thereof. 
The examinations which have been made of the potted tongues of commerce 
do not indicate whether they are of a single character or whether the tongues 
are derived from a variety of sources. The mean composition of twenty-one 
samples bought in the open market, as found in the Biu^eau of Chemistry, is 
given in the following table: 

Water, 52.50 percent 

Water in the fat-free substance, 67.67 " 

Fat, 22.99 " 

Protein, 17.80 " 

Meat bases, 75 " 

Total ash, 5.46 " 

Adulteration 0} Potted Tongue. — In the samples examined above starch was 
found in four cases, the largest amount being 11.6 percent. Saltpeter was 
found in eighteen cases, the largest amount being .06 percent. Tin was 
present in thirteen cases and zinc in eight cases. Boric acid was found in 
fourteen cases. 

From the above it is evident that the principal adulterations in potted tongue, 
aside from the use of meats which are not tongue, and which chemical analysis 
cannot disclose, are the addition of starch, saltpeter, tin, and zinc, the two latter 
derived either from the solder or from the caa in which the goods are placed. 

Canned Poultry. — Other fresh meats, in addition to beef and pork, are 
canned in a fresh state. In the case of poultry the fowls are dressed and 
drawn and the whole carcass boiled until the meat is sufficiently cooked to fa- 
cilitate the separation from the bones. The bones are then removed and the 
meat is canned and sterilized by practically the same method as practiced with 
canned beef. Game and wild fowl meats are also -subjected to the same 
process of canning as the domesticated chickens, geese, ducks, turkeys, etc. 
In general it may be said that there are no differences in the processes 



CANNED HORSE MEAT. 



57 



employed, but the important question to the consumer is the character of 
the raw materials used, the sanitary conditions which attended their prep- 
aration, and their freedom from admixtures of other meats cheaper in price 
and of different dietetic vahies. 

Adulteration of Canned Fresh Meat.— Fortunately the process of steriHza- 
tion is of such a character, when properly carried out, as to exclude all necessity 
for the addition of any preservative substances to canned fresh meat. The 
use of ordinary condimental substances in moderate quantities cannot be re- 
garded as an adulteration. Hence, the addition of small quantities of salt, 
sugar, vinegar, and the ordinary spices, when used solely for the improvement 
of the taste and flavor and not for preservative purposes, is regarded as unob- 
jectionable. 

The common preservatives used in canned meat are, first, those which give 
color to the meat and preserve its natural red tint. For this purpose saltpeter 
and sulfite of soda are most commonly employed. Red dyes of anv description 
are rarely, if ever, found. The preservative which is used most frequently in 
canned meat is borax or boric acid. That this use is not necessary is evident 
from the investigations which have been made by many investigators which 
show that in most cases no preservatives at all are used. The addition 
of any chemical preservative is, therefore, to be regarded as unnecessar}- and 
as an adulteration. 

The use of any diseased, tainted, decomposed, or filthy meat, even if it is of 
the same origin as that in the can, is an adulteration of the most serious char- 
acter and one that can only be effectually controlled by the inspection men- 
tioned. The adulteration of the meat of fowls of all descriptions by cheaj)er 
meats, such as pork or veal, even if they be of wholesome and sound character, 
is an adulteration said to be often practiced and one which it is difficult to 
detect if the particles of meat are finely comminuted. 

Standard for Preserved Meats. — The standard for preserved meat is the 
same as that for fresh meat which is given in Circular 19, Office of the Secretar}-, 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. The meat must be sound, wholesome, 
dean, freshly taken from the slaughtered animal, and not from one that has 
died from disease, suffocation, or accident, and must conform in name and 
character to the meat of the animal. 

Frequency of Adulteration. — The examination made of numerous samples 
of canned meat by many investigators shows that the adulteration of these 
foods is rather common but by no means general. 

Canned Horse Meat. — Horse meat is commonly used for human food in 
many European countries, although it is believed that it is hot used to any ex- 
tent in the United States. When procured from healthy animals in a proper 
way there is no hygienic objection to its use, though it is considered to be some- 
what tougher than the flesh of other animals more commonly employed as food. 



58 MEATS. 

but that is probably due to the fact that horses are not raised for food purposes 
and are usually not used for such until they are worn out in domestic service. 
There are many sentimental and often religious objections to the use of horse 
meat, but experience has shown that it is wholesome and nutritious. Horse 
meat is characteristic in containing more natural sugar, commonly known as 
glycogen, than any of the other ordinary meats used for human consumption. 
It approaches in its content of sugar some of the shell-fish flesh, such as that of 
the lobster. Practically all of the horse meat which is prepared in this country 
is exported to Europe. There are cases, however, on record of the sale of 
horse flesh to domestic consumers. Especially could it be used in this way in 
the form of sausage or other finely comminuted products without much danger 
of detection. 

Composition of Horse Meat. — A number of samples of horse meat of un- 
doubted origin and wholesomeness have been examined in the Bureau of 
Chemistry and the data tabulated. The average composition of sixteen 
samples of horse meat, representing different parts of the carcass, is shown in 
the following table: 

Water, 69.81 percent 

Water in fat-free substance, 76-91 " 

Fat, 9.61 

Protein, 19-47 " 

Protein insoluble in water, 14-83 " 

Gelatinous protein, 1-23 " 

Meat bases, 1.70 " 

Glycogen, 1-82 

Ash, i.oi " 

Composition oj Dry Material. — 

Protein, 67.98 percent 

Fat, 27.71 " 

Ash, 3-18 

Undetermined, 1-13 " 

The high percentage of glycogen in horse meat is one of the safest 
methods of determining its character when comminuted or cut up into pieces 
so small as not to be identified by the usual anatomical characteristics. Very 
few other kinds of edible flesh contain as much as one percent of glycogen. 
Glycogen is a transitory product which tends naturally to be broken up into 
other substances, and, hence, even in horse meat after slaughter, it may rapidly 
disappear and thus, unless the meat is examined at once, very little glycogen 
may be found in it. A safer test for horse meat is in the nature of the fat 
therein. This fat does not tend to change as the glycogen does, and, therefore, 
in a pure preparation of horse meat even in a finely comminuted state the 
separation and examination of the fat will lead to a determination of the char- 
acter of meat employed. The fats of horse meat have a lower melting point, 



CANNED SAUSAGE. 59 

a higher iodin number, and a higher heat value when mixed with sulfuric acid 
than those of beef. 

Indeed, these differences are so marked as to afford a ready means of de- 
tection to the practical chemist. Even in the mixture of horse meat with other 
meat the variation in the character of the fats will be such as to lead to a correct 
judgment respecting the approximate amount of horse meat which has been 
used, provided it forms any notable amount of the mixture. 

Canned Cured Meats. — Sterilization is such a certain method of preventing 
the decay of meats that it has now come into use to a large extent in the final 
preservation of shipments of cured meats. The object of curing, as has already 
been stated, is not merely to prevent the meat from decaying, nor is it intended 
to inhibit entirely enzymic action. On the contrary, if the method of curing 
were such as to entirely stop fermentative action, the tla\'ors and aromas of 
preserved meats, upon which their value so much depends, would be eliminated, 
and we would simply have a mass of tasteless meat, preser^•ed from decay by 
the application of chemical preservatives of a character to impart neither flavor 
nor aroma to the meat and at the same time pre\ent the activity of the various 
ferments above described. Such methods of preparation, naturally, should 
never be of general use, because in cured meats the consumer demands the 
flavor which naturally proceeds from the ordinary method of curing. After 
curing and when subjected to transportation the meats may undergo decom- 
position and reach their destination in a spoiled state. To avoid this it has 
been a customary practice to pack the meat in a chemical preservative, such as 
borax. This is, however, a very objectionable practice because even in the 
cured state the meat is still absorptive, and the borax, which is packed exter- 
nally upon it, as a precaution during transit, must necessarily penetrate to a 
certain extent to the interior of the meat. By packing cured meat in tins and 
subjecting these tins to sterilization complete immunity from decay may be se- 
cured and there is no damage done to the aroma or flavor. We, therefore, find 
upon the market at the present time in tinned, canned, or potted form almost 
every variety of meat that is used either in a fresh state or after the usual 
method of curing. 

Canned Sausage. — One of the most important of cured meats which is 
offered for sale is sausage. Sausage may be canned either in the fresh or cured 
state and, of course, may be adulterated in both conditions. Canned sausage 
should have a clean bill of health from the local inspector the same as any other 
meat food. 

There is, perhaps, more room for deception in the manufacture of sausage 
than in almost any other form of comminuted meat. When proj)crly treated 
with condimental substances, such as salt, spices, vinegar, etc., sausages are 
highly prized as a food product, and justly so. In the canned state sausage 



6o MEATS. 

should undergo no other manipulation than spicing and sterilization at a tem- 
perature necessary to kill all fermentative germs and prevent decay. 

Composition of Canned Sausage. — Twenty-five samples of canned sausage ex- 
amined in the Bureau of Chemistry had the following average composition: 

Water, 58.51 percent 

Water in fat-free substance, 75-59 " 

Fat, 2 1 .82 

Protein, 13-92 " 

Protein insoluble in water, ii-37 " 

Gelatinous protein, 1.2 1 " 

Meat bases, 67 " 

Ash, 2.86 

Sodium chlorid, 1.02 " 

The above data show that canned sausage differs largely from fresh meat in 
its composition, especially in the much higher content of fat and lower content of 
water which is found therein. 

Adulteration oj Canned Sausage. — The principal adulteration, as has already 
been stated, is in the admixture of meats of unknown and miscellaneous origin 
and possibly inedible in character. The degree of comminution to which 
sausage is subjected renders it difficult in the inspection of sausage itself to 
determine the character of the animal from which it is made. The study of 
the fat is the most useful guide in such cases. Presumably sausage is made 
almost exclusively of beef and pork, but, as a matter of fact, much which is not 
eaten under its own name may be found in sausage. 

Next to the introduction of meat of an improper character the most important 
adulteration is the common use of starch. Starch is very much cheaper than 
meat, and its abundant use enables a greater profit to be made. It is highly 
esteemed, also, as a "filler," on the ground that it prevents the shrinkage of 
sausage when fried. Starch granules under the influence of heat are gelatinous, 
holding moisture with tenacity and preventing shrinkage in bulk. 

The presence of starch in sausage must be regarded as an unjustifiable 
adulteration unless the amount therein is plainly marked on the label of the 
package. 

The use of preservatives in the curing of sausage is a very common practice 
and, hence, canned sausages are found to often contain boric acid or borax 
and sulfite of soda especially. Dyes of various kinds are also used in coloring 
sausage or its covering, largely of a coal tar origin. 

The proper safeguard for the consumer in regard to the character of sausage 
is in the inspection of the factory. It is highly important that each municipality 
and state should have a rigid system for the inspection of sausage, and the 
sausage thus inspected should bear the certification of the kind of meat used 
and its general character. The presence of inspectors in factories would 
prevent the use of preservatives which, it has been shown by the researches of 
many investigators, are prejudicial to health. 



I 



MAGNITUDE OF MEAT INDUSTRY. 6l 

Magnitude of the Meat Industry.— According to the census of 1905, 
there has been a large increase in the slaughtering and meat packing industry 
in the United States, as compared with the statistics of 1900. The data for 
the Census of 1910 are not yet available. Owing to the extension of the meat 
inspection service there are now 876 establishments in 240 cities and towns 
under inspection. The number of animals submitted to ante mortem inspec- 
tion in 1909 was 56,545,737 and to post mortem inspection 55,672,075. Of 
this latter number 141,057 were condemned. 

Comparative figures for 1905 and 1900 are shown in the following summary: 



1905. 

Number of establishments, 929 

Capital, $237,699,440 

Salaried officials, clerks, etc.: 

Number, 12,075 

Salaries, $13,377,908 

Wage-earners : 

Average number, 74,132 

Wages, $40,447,574 

Miscellaneous expenses, 30,623,108 

Materials used: 

Total cost, $805,856,969 

Animals slaughtered: 

Beeves, $289,040,930 

Sheep, 44,359,804 

Hogs, 329,763,430 

Calves, 12,666,942 

All other, 61,905 

All other materials, 129,963,958 

Products : 

Total value, $913,914,624 

Beef- 
Sold fresh, $247,135,029 

Canned, 7,697,815 

Salted or cured, 8,107,952 

Mutton — 

Sold fresh, $36,880,455 

Veal- 
Sold fresh, $12,856,369 

Pork- 
Sold fresh, $91,779,323 

Salted, 116,626,710 

Hams, smoked bacon, etc., 132,210,611 

Sausage, fresh or cured, 25,056,331 

All other meat sold fresh, 9,579,718 

Refined lard, 74,116,991 

Neutral lard, 8,423,973 

Oleomargarine oil, 10,201,911 

Other oils, 2,595,951 

Fertilizers, 4,397,626 

Hides, 44,137,802 

Wool, 5,229,521 

All other products, 76,880,536 

* Decrease. 





Percent of 


1900. 


Increase. 


921 


.8 


$189,198,264 


25.6 


10,227 


18.0 


$10,123,247 


32.1 


. 68,534 


8.2 


*33.457>oi3 


20.9 


24,060,412 


27-3 


$683,583,577 


17.9 


$247,365,812 


16.S 


37-137-542 


19.4 


278,736,961 


18.3 


7.356,560 


72.2 


550A39 




112,426,863 


154 


$785,562,433 


16.3 


$211,068,934 


17.1 


9>i67,53i 


17. I* 


9,661,834 


16.1* 


$32,963,219 


11.9 


$7,812,714 


64.6 


$84,019,387 


9.2 


88,674,016 


31-5 


148,666,859 


II. 1* 


21,472,413 


16.7 


7,813,078 


22.6 


52,620,348 


40.8 


8,588,350 


I.I* 


11,482,542 


II. 2* 


3,440,358 


24.5* 


3,300,132 


33-3 


33,925,911 


30.1 


3,335,824 


56.8 


47,548,983 


61.7 



62 MEATS. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

It is evident, from the foregoing description of the methods of preparing and 
sterilizing meat, that it is a process which commends itself both on account 
of the economy in the use of meat which it secures and because of the nutritive 
value of the products obtained. 

The real value of the products must necessarily depend upon the selection 
of the raw materials and the sanitary conditions which attend their manipula- 
tion. Experience has shown that it is not safe to leave these matters to the 
packers themselves. While, doubtless, the greater number of packers will 
exercise all possible care in the selection of the materials and in their prepara- 
tion, human nature is of such a character that when opportunity for deception, 
fraud, and illegitimate gains are presented there are always some who take ad- 
vantage of them. Hence, it may be safely said that no tinned or canned or ster- 
ilized meat of any description should be allowed to enter into consumption except 
when prepared under the inspection of qualified municipal, state, or national 
officers. The health of the animal furnishing the meat should be ascertained 
by inspection both before and after slaughter. This inspection should be of 
the most rigid kind, and all diseased animals should be excluded from entering 
into standard products. If it be claimed that there are certain diseases which are 
local only in character and which do not affect the wholesomeness of the whole 
carcass, special provisions can be made for this kind of meat. If admitted into 
consumption at all, it should be under a permanent label or tag by which the 
intended consumer would be informed of the character of the contents of the 
package. 

There is a reasonable doubt respecting the suitability for human food of 
carcasses of animals afflicted in a moderate degree with tuberculosis, pleuro- 
pneumonia, lumpy jaw, or other contagious or epidemic diseases. In all such 
cases the rights of the consumers demand that the benefit of the doubt should 
be given to them and not to the owner, manufacturer, and dealer in any of the 
products they consume. Such meat would then enter the market under a sepa- 
rate grade and command a lower price, and when consumed no one would be 
deceived respecting its character. 

It must be admitted, even if such meat be regarded as wholesome, that 
it ia of inferior character, and cannot in any justice demand the right to pass 
under the name of higher grades of the article. The sanitary conditions 
under which such meats are prepared are of the highest importance. The 
slaughter house should be clean, and provided with good ventilation and 
natural light. The workmen should be free of disease, neatly dressed, and re- 
quired to observe all necessary sanitary precautions. The debris and fragments 
of the packing house should be carefully removed and so disposed of as to pre- 
vent any suspicion that any part of them enters any of the products of the 



LARD. 63 

factory. Municipal, state, or national inspection should be frequent, thorough, 
and entirely removed from any possible influence of the packing business itself. 
Competent veterinary experts should pass upon the state of health of each car- 
cass, and any one found diseased in any way should be subjected to a further 
careful inspection to see whether it should be admitted, under proper label 
and notification, as human food or consigned to the fertilizer heap. It is only 
by such inspection as this that the consumer can secure adequate protection. 
After the meat is once in the can inspection will only reveal whether or not 
preservatives and coloring matter have been used, or whether the contents of the 
can are spoiled or in a state unfit for consumption. No examination of the 
contents of the can will reveal in a satisfactory manner the state of health of the 
carcass from which the meat has been secured or the sanitary conditions under 
which it has been prepared. It is hoped the new methods of inspection es- 
tablished by the Secretary of Agriculture will secure the desired purity of meat 
products. 

LARD. 

The fat of swine, properly separated from the other tissues, is known as lard. 
The process of separation is termed " rendering." Various methods of render- 
ing are practiced, all depending, however, upon the use of heat, which liquefies 
the fat and gradually frees it from its connective tissues. 

Parts of Fat Used for Lard Making. — In the making of lard the highest 
grades are produced from the fat lining the back of the animal and that con- 
nected with the intestines. The sheets of fat which are found lining the back 
of the animal furnish a variety known as leaf lard. All parts of the fat of the 
animal not used in the meats themselves may be used in the manufacture of lard. 
In the preparation of the carcass, the parts cut off in trimming the pieces and con- 
taining fat are sent to the rendering tank. The leaf lard is also removed by 
tearing it off from the back of the animal, and the intestinal fat is separated 
from the viscera in like manner. There is probably no question of whole- 
someness between the lards made from different parts of the carcass. The 
lard differs in its chemical composition and its physical consistence as deter- 
mined by its location in the body. Inasmuch as it is important that lard 
should have a certain degree of consistence even in summer time and not be- 
come too soft or liquid in character, the lard which has a high melting point is 
preferred, especially during the summer. The lards made from the feet and 
some other parts of the hog have lower melting points. The different kinds of 
fat from all parts of the animal might be mixed together and a lard made there- 
from representing the average consistence of the fat of the whole body. A 
small quantity of stearin is often added to raise the melting point, but the 
addition of this substance without notice must be regarded as an adultera- 
tion. 



64 



MEATS. 



Names of Different Kinds of Lard. — The names applied to the different 
kinds of lard may be referred principally to the parts of fat used, such as leaf 
lard, intestinal lard, etc., or to the method of preparing it. The old-fashioned 
method of preparing lard for family use consisted in placing the fat in an open 
kettle and heating usually over the open fire. The rendering takes place as the 
mass increases in temperature, so that the residual tissues become browned by 
the high temperature reached. Lard made in this way is of most excellent 
ciuality and, of course, being made under family supervision, its character is 
well understood and the parts of the body used are well known. In the large 
packing establishments the lard is usually rendered by the application of heat 
in the form of steam under pressure, of a suitable temperature to make the 
character of the lard uniform. Large vields can be secured in this way with less 
charring of the residual tissues, and consequently the lard itself is a finer and 
whiter product. Lard of this kind is sometimes known as steam rendered lard. 
Uses of Lard. — The fat of swine prepared as above mentioned, and known 
as lard, finds a very extended use in every kitchen. It is mixed with various 
forms of bread making materials, cake, etc., and is often known in this sense as 
" shortening." It is also employed for lubricating the pans and other culinary 
utensils used for baking purposes. It is sometimes employed for the purpose of 
cooking by the process of frying or of introducing the substance to be cooked 
directly into the hot lard, as in the frying of oysters, the making of doughnuts, 
and similar operations. Lard has come to be looked upon as a necessity in 
every kitchen, even of the humblest citizen. 

■ Many objections are made to the use of lard on hygienic grounds, and prob- 
ably on account of its cheapness and general utility it is more freely used in 
American cooking than it should be. In other words, American cooking is 
under the reproach of being too greasy. There is no reason to question the 
digestive and nutritive value of lard when used in proper quantities and in 
proper conditions. It is a typical fat food composed of materials which are al- 
most wholly oxidized in the body and which upon combustion produce a higher 
number of units of heat than that of any other class of food substances. 



COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF AMERICAN LARD. 



Leaf lard, 

Pure leaf lard, 

Prime steam lard, 



w < 


fu !z J 

< a 





Melting 
Point of 
ATTY Acid. 


ystallizing 
Point of 
ATTY Acid. 


i W Q 
S H S 
W C 

& « 

H » 

M < fa 
m « J 


Q 

e « 
§1 




m w 




H^ 


G ^ 










C.° 


C.° 


C.° 


c. ° 


Percent 


•9057 


272.64 


41.6 


43-0 


40.40 


39-7 


59.60 


.9028 


281.01 


44.9 


42.8 


40.40 


37-1 


S3-04 


.9052 


279.06 


38-4 


41.8 


39-53 


33-7 


63.84 



Percent 
.165 
.025 
.040 



ADULTERATION OF LARD. 65 

Adulteration of Lard. — The principal adulteration to which lard is sub- 
jected is admixture with otherand cheaper fats. Among the fats which are used 
for this purpose may be mentioned beef fat and cottonseed oil. Beef fat has a 
higher melting point than lard and cottonseed oil a much lower melting point, 
being liquid at ordinary temperatures. A mixture of beef fat and cottonseed oil 
may, therefore, be made, having approximately the same melting point as lard 
itself. The addition of this mixture to lard would not alter its melting point to 
any sensible extent. Instead of using the whole cottonseed oil for the purpose 
mentioned it may be previously chilled and its product of a higher melting point, 
or as it is sometimes called, the stearin of cottonseed oil, may be used for ad- 
mixture with lard. Large quantities of these mixed fats were formerly made in 
this country under the name of "compound lard" in which the above adulter- 
ants were the chief constituents. The laws of the various states are happily 
of a character whicli forbids the sale of a mixture of a compound of lard and 
other fats under the name of lard, although there is no objection to such ad- 
mixture from a hygienic and dietetic point of view. There are many hygien- 
ists who are of the opinion that the more extended use of vegetable oils instead 
of lard would be of value to the health of the public. If this be true, the ad- 
mixture of a vegetable oil with lard would improve it from a hygienic stand- 
point. The principal, perhaps the sole, objection to such admixtures is their 
fraudulent character. Vegetable oils, especially cottonseed oil, being very 
much cheaper than lard, their use in lard without notification cheapens the 
product and defrauds the customer. Lard may also be adulterated with its 
own stearin. In the manufacture of lard oil a residue is left of a much higher 
melting point and this residue may be mixed with a vegetable oil, such as 
cottonseed, in the production of a compound of approximately the same melt- 
ing point as lard itself. In a case of this kind both constituents are fraudulent, 
in as much as neither the cottonseed oil nor the lard stearin may be regarded 
in any sense as lard. 

Detection of Adulterations. — The presence of cottonseed oil in any form 
in lard is at once determined by the application of a simple color test known as. 
the Halphen test. This is not a reliable test in those cases where the animal 
has been fed cottonseed. 

Halphen Reaction for Cottonseed Oil. — Carbon disulfid, containing about 
one percent of sulfur in solution, is mixed with, an equal volume of amyl alcohol. 
Mix equal volumes of this reagent and the oil under examination and heat in a 
bath of boiling brine for fifteen minutes. In the presence of as little as one per- 
cent of cottonseed oil an orange or red color is produced, which is characteristic. 

Lard and lard oil from animals fed on cottonseed meal will give a faiiU re- 
action, as will also the fatty acids thereof. 

This test is more sensitive than the Bechi test (nitrate of silver) and less 
XvaHq to give unsatisfactory results in the hands of an inexperienced person. 
6 



66 MEATS. 

It is not affected by rancidity. The depth of color is proportional, to a certain 
extent, to the amount of oil present, and by making comparative tests with cot- 
tonseed oil some idea as to the amount present can be obtained, but it must 
be remembered that different oils react with different intensities, and oils 
which have been heated from 200° to 210° C. react with greatly diminished 
intensity. Heating ten minutes at 250° renders cottonseed oil incapable of 
giving the reaction. 

Cottonseed oil also has the property of reducing silver in silver nitrate 
to a metallic state. When mixed with a solution of silver nitrate under 
proper conditions a blackening or precipitation of black metallic silver is 
observed. This is known as the Bechi test which is conducted as follows: 

BecJii or Silver Nitrate Test for Cottonseed Oil. — Reagent: Dissolve 2 
grams of silver nitrate in 200 cubic centimeters of 95 percent alcohol and 40 
cubic centimeters of ether, adding one drop of nitric acid. 

Mix 10 c.c. of oil or melted fat, 5 c.c. of reagent, and 10 c.c. of amyl alcohol 
in a test tube. Divide, heat one-half in a boihng water bath for ten minutes, 
and then compare with portion not heated. Any blackening due to reduced 
silver shows presence of cottonseed oil. 

Other oils which have become rancid, and lards which have been steamed 
or heated at high temperature, contain decomposition products which have 
a reducing action on silver nitrate. There were found in testing a large num- 
ber of salad oils some which contained no cottonseed oil, according to the 
Halphen test, but gave a brown coloration with Bechi reagent, and in some 
cases reduced silver. These same oils on being purified gave no reaction. 
Hence the oils or fats should be purified before testing. 

To purify the oils and fats, heat from 20 to 30 grams on water bath for a 
few minutes with the addition of 25 c.c. of 95 percent alcohol, shake thoroughly, 
decant as much of the alcohol as possible, and wash with two percent nitric 
acid, and finally with water. The oil or lard thus purified will give no reduc- 
tion at all if it contains no cottonseed oil. Heating the oils or fats to 100° C. 
or simple washing with two percent nitric acid is not sufficient, except in a few 
cases. 

With oils the use of the Halphen and Bechi tests will be found to be useful 
as a means of approximately determining the amounts of adulteration pres- 
ent. If Halphen gives a reaction and Bechi does not, the adulteration with 
cottonseed oil is probably less than 10 percent. 

The admixture of beef fat with lard is best detected by means of the micro- 
scope. The fat is dissolved in ether and allowed to slowly crystallize. If 
it is composed of pure lard the crystal assumes a form which is represented 
in Fig. 8. 

If, on the other hand, beef fat be mixed with lard, the crystals will assume 
a radiated fan-shaped appearance shown in Fig. 9. Even one who is an 



DETECTION OF ADULTERATIONS. 



67 




Fig. 8. — Lard Crystals. X 140. — (^Bureau of Chemistry.') 



^^ 



■ K'V 



^ 



■S^ 



\ 



Fig. 9.— Beef Fat Crystals. X \i,o.— {Bureau of Chemistry.) 



68 . MEATS. 

expert with the microscope may not be able without some difficulty to detect 
these adulterations by the simple tests above mentioned. 

Commercial Classification of Lards. — In addition to the kinds of lard 
mentioned above other varieties are known in commerce. 

Neutral Lard. — This, which is one of the best varieties of lard, is made from 
the fat derived from the leaf lard of the slaughtered animal in a perfectly fresh 
state, that is, taken immediately after slaughter and before the carcass is cold. 
The leaf lard, when it is removed from the animal, is at once placed in cold stor- 
age or put into cold water, in order to rapidly remove the animal heat. As soon 
as it is thoroughly chilled it is reduced to a pulp in a grinder and sent at once 
to the rendering kettle. The fat is rendered at a very low temperature, 
from 105 to 120 degrees F. (40-50 degrees C). It is evident that only a part 
of the lard is separated at this temperature, and this part is regarded as being 
of the best quahty, almost tasteless, free of acids and other impurities. The 
residue from the making of neutral lard is sent to other kettles, where it is 
subjected to a higher temperature and the remainder of the lard extracted, 
which is sold under the name of another grade. Neutral lard, obtained as 
above, while still liquid, is washed with water containing a trace of sodium 
carbonate, common salt, or a dilute acid. The product thus formed is almost 
neutral in its reaction to litmus paper containing not to exceed .25 percent of 
free acid, but it has more water and mineral matter than is found in the pure 
rendered untreated lard. The neutral lard made in this way is not used so 
commonly for culinary purposes but chiefly in the manufacture of oleomar- 
garine. 

Leaf Lard. — The residue of lard obtained by rendering the unseparated 
part of lard from the above process at a higher temperature is also of a high 
quality and is sometimes improperly designated leaf lard, a term which should 
be reserved for the whole product instead of a part obtained by rendering the 
residual leaf fat. 

Choice Kettle-rendered Lard. — The amount of neutral lard which is 
demanded in the manufacture of oleomargarine does not by any means exhaust 
the supply of leaf lard. For making choice kettle-rendered lard the leaf lard 
together with the fat cut from the back of the animal is rendered in steam- 
jacketed open kettles and produces a lard of a high quality known as kettle- 
rendered or choice kettle-rendered lard. The hide is removed from the fat 
portion of the back used for this purpose before the rendering. Both the 
leaf and pieces of the back are passed through a fine sausage grinder before 
they enter the rendering kettle. According to the requirements of the Chicago 
Board of Trade, choice lard, which is another term for the above variety, is 
to be made from leaf and trimmings only, either steam-rendered or kettle- 
rendered, and the manner of rendering to be branded on each package. 

Prime Steam Lard. — The prime steam lard of commerce is made as 



DISPOSITION OF THE INTESTINES OF THE HOG. 69 

follows: The whole head of the hog, after the removal of the jowl, is used 
for rendering. The heads are placed in the bottom of the rendering tank. 
The mesenteric fat adhering to the small intestines is also used in the tank. 
Any fat that may be attached to the heart or other organs of the animal may 
also be used. In those factories where kettle-rendered lard is not made the 
scrap fat from the back of the animals and trimmings are also used. When 
there is an excess of leaf it is also put in the rendering tank and, in general, 
all the fat portions of the body which are removed in the trimming process. 
It is thus seen that prime steam lard is a term which may practicallv represent 
the average fat of the whole animal. 

Prime steam lard is thus defined by the Chicago Board of Trade: "Standard 
prime steam lard shall be solely the product of the trimmings and other fat 
parts of hogs, rendered in tanks by the direct application of steam, and without 
subsequent change in grain or character by the use of agitators or other machin- 
ery except as such change may unavoidably come from transportation. 
It shall have proper color, fla\-or, and soundness for keeping, and no material 
which has been salted shall be included. The name and location of the ren- 
derer and the grade of the lard shall be plainly branded on each package at 
the time of packing. " All the lard which is made is subjected to the approval 
of inspectors both as to the material employed and the method of procedure, 
together with the character of the final product. 

Disposition of the Intestines of the Hog. — In the term intestines is 
included all of the abdominal viscera of the animal but not the thoracic vis- 
cera, namely, the heart and lungs. The material is handled in the following 
way: When the animal is opened the viscera are separated, including the 
flesh surrounding the anus and a strip containing the external genito-urinary 
organs. The heart is thrown to one side and the fatty portions trimmed 
off for lard. The rest of the heart is used for sausage or for fertilizer. The 
lungs and liver are either used in the manufacture of sausage or for fertilizer. 
The rectum and large intestines are separated from the intestinal fat and 
peritoneum and, along with the adhering flesh and genito-urinary organs, 
sent to the trimmer. All flesh from the above-mentioned organs is cut away 
and the intestine proper is used for sausage casings. The trimmings, includ- 
ing the genito-urinary organs, are washed and placed in the rendering tank 
where lard is made. The small intestine is also separated from the fatty 
membrane surrounding it and prepared for sausage casings. The remain- 
ing material, consisting of the peritoneum, diaphragm, stomach, and adhering 
membranes, together with the intestinal fat, constitutes the "guts" which 
are subjected to washing in three or four different tanks. In the first tank 
the stomach and peritoneum are spHt open, and also any portion of the intes- 
tines which still adhere to the peritoneum. The portions then go from tank 
to tank, usually four in number, and are then ready for the rendering tank. 



70 MEATS. 

The omentum fat is cut from the kidneys, and the kidneys with any adhering 
fat go into the rendering vat. The spleen, pancreas, vocal cords, trachea, 
and oesophagus also go into the tank. 

In general it may be said that everything connected with the viscera go 
into the rendering tank with the following exceptions: First, that portion 
of the intestines which is saved for sausage casings; second, the liver and 
lungs; third, that part of the heart free from fat. 

In the killing of small hogs, where the intestines are not of sufficient size 
to be suitable for sausage casings, they also go into the rendering tank. It 
should be stated here that the grease or lard obtained by the rendering of 
the above described viscera, according to the statements of the manufac- 
turers, is used solely in the manufacture of lard oil and soap, and does not 
enter into the lard of commerce. 

When the processes of manufacture are properly controlled by official 
inspection the public may be assured that this disposition of the fat obtained 
by the rendering of the intestinal viscera is secured. 

Butchers' Lard. — A considerable quantity of lard is made for commercial 
purposes by the small butcher for family use, etc. This lard is made almost 
exclusively by rendering in the open kettle. In the country where butchering 
is conducted for family use the ordinary open kettle is placed over an open 
fire. All parts of the fat of the animal which can be easily separated and the 
scraps derived from trimming the animal are used for rendering. The offal 
and refuse of the animal are also rendered separately and the product used 
for soap grease. The lard made in this way is regarded as perfectly whole- 
some, but it is frequently dark-colored from the charring due to rendering 
over the open fire and by reason of using some portions of the animal, such 
as tendons, from which glue is made. Such lard may contain traces or even 
considerable quantities of glue which, however, cannot be regarded as an 
unwholesome product. The partially browned residues in the kettle in the 
country are known as "cracklings" and are used for soap grease. 

Inedible Hog Fat Products. — In the shipping of hogs a great many are 
smothered and others die of disease or are in a condition, at the time of slaugh- 
ter, which renders them unfit for human food, either by the presence of dis- 
ease or otherwise. The fats are separated from dead animals of this class 
and are used for technical purposes such as burning oils, soap grease, etc. 
There are several varieties of these inedible fats of which the following are 
the principal: 

White Grease. — This grease is made chiefly from hogs which die in transit by 
being smothered or from freezing. Formerly it was the custom to make white 
grease also from the animals which died of disease, but the manufacture of 
this product has been restricted by certain state laws which forbid the use 
of animals which die of particular diseases, such as hog cholera, from being 



TANKS FOR PRODUCING LARD UNDER PRESSURE. 7 1 

used for any purpose whatever and their carcasses are to be buried so as 
to remove all danger of infection. 

Brown Grease. — Brown grease is a product of a lower grade than white 
grease and is made usually by rendering the whole animal. It is one of 
the by-products in the manufacture of tankage from condemned animal 
carcasses, the tankage being used as fertilizer. Both white and brown grease 
are used chiefly in the manufacture of low grade lard oil and in the making 
of soap. 

Yellow Grease. — Yellow grease is a product intermediate in value between 
white and brown grease. It is made chiefly from the carcasses of animals 
that die while on the packers' hands. It is used for the same purpose as 
white and brown grease. 

Pig's-joot Grease. — A special variety of grease is made from pigs' feet as 
a by-product in the glue factory. This grease is used also in making lard 
oil and soap. It is evident that these varieties of grease are only inedible 
varieties of lard, and through proper inspection the public is protected against 
the use of these varieties of grease in the edible product. 

Lard Stearin. — IMention has already been made of the fact that by melt- 
ing a fat and cooling it slowly towards its solidifying point, certain constit- 
uents of the fat which have a higher melting point separate first, leaving 
those constituents with a lower melting point still in a liquid condition. Those 
portions of an oil or fat which separate first under such conditions, are the 
constituents of the product which is known as stearin, while the part that re- 
mains liquid is the constituent known as olein. Lard stearin is made princi- 
pally for the manufacture of mixtures and is a by-product of the highest grade 
of lard oil. Lard stearin is made as follows: The lard is melted and kept 
in a crystallizing room at from 50 to 60 degrees F., until it is filled with the crys- 
tals of the separated stearin. The product is then wrapped in cloth in the 
form of cakes. Each package contains from 10 to 20 pounds. The cakes 
are then placed in a large press with suitable arrangements to facilitate the 
escape of the oil and maintain the low temperature. The pressure is applied 
very gradually at first, and as the process advances, with increasing power. 
The high grade oil obtained in this way is known as prime or extra lard oil 
and is used for illuminating and lubricating purposes. The resulting solid 
product, which is principally stearin, is used as one of the adulterants of lard, 
that is, in making a mixture which is sometimes called lard, composed of 
lard stearin and cottonseed oil. 

Tanks Used for Producing Lard Under Pressure. — There are various 
forms of tanks used for producing steam rendered lard. In tlie open kettle 
there is a jacketed arrangement by means of which steam, at the proper 
temperature, is made to act upon the contents of the inner kettle. In the 
closed kettle the steam may be applied in the form of a jacketed arrange- 



72 



MEATS. 



ment or introduced directly into the kettle. The residues which remain after 
the steaming is completed and after the lard has been drawn off are withdrawn 




Fig. 10. 



from the conical lower portion of the kettle which can be opened for the 
removal of these residues. A typical kettle for rendering lard is shown m 
Fi^ lo The fragments of meat to be received are placed in the openmgM 



PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LARD. 73 

which is then properly closed when the tank is full. Steam is admitted and 
the condensation which is produced at first b}' the cold contents of the tank 
is drawn off through a water pipe. After the tank, is thoroughly heated and 
the fat begins to separate the lard will rise above the water and the solid 
fragments and at the end of the process will fill the upper part of the tank. 
By means of the cocks at D it can be determined to what depth the tank 
is filled with lard and the lard can be drawn off through these cocks until 
water begins to flow. The bottom of the tank at G is then opened and the 
residues withdrawn, dried and ground for tankage. 

Physical Properties of Lard. — Specific Gravity. — The specific gravity 
of pure lard is to be determined at some definite temperature, inasmuch as 
a statement of its specific gravity without some reference to the temperature 
at which it is determined is likely to be misleading. It is not convenient to 
ascertain the specific gravity of a lard at a temperature below its melting 
point. It is customary, therefore, either to take the specific gravity at about 
40 degrees C, or at the temperature of boiling water. 

The average specific gravity of j^ure lard at 40 degrees C. (104 degrees 
F.), regarding water as 100, is 89, and at 100 degrees C. it is 86, the 
weight of water being determined at the point of greatest density, namely, 
4 degrees C. (39 degrees F.). Unfortunately the specific gravity of pure lard 
is not very greatly different from that of other oils or other fats used in its 
adulteration. For this reason it is not of the highest value for determining 
whether or not the pure article has been subjected to adulteration. 

Melting Point.— The. melting point of a pure lard is a physical character- 
istic of great value, since it is chiefly influenced by the part of the body of the 
animal from which it is made. The fat which is rendered from the foot 
of the hog has the lowest melting point, namely, about 35 degrees C. (95° F.). 
The fat adhering to the intestines has the highest melting point, namely, 44 
degrees C. (iii degrees F.). The fat derived from the head of the hog 
has a slightly higher melting point than that from the feet. The kidney 
fat has a melting point of 42.5 degrees C. (108.2 degrees F.). In the steam 
rendered lards, representing the average of lards passed upon by the Chicago 
Board of Trade, the average melting point is found to be about 37 degrees C. 
(98.7 degrees F.). The melting point of superior or leaf lard has an average 
value of about 40 degrees C. (104 degrees F.). 

Color Reaction.— A pure high grade lard when mixed on a white porce- 
lain plate with the proper amount of sulfuric or nitric acid should give only a 
very slight coloration. The production of any considerable quantity of color, 
either brown or black, indicates the presence of organic impurities in the 
lard. 

Rise of Temperature with Sulfuric Acid. — The various fats give different 
degrees of heat when mixed, under certain conditions, with strong sulfuric 



74 



MEATS. 



acid. It is possible to determine the approximate degree of the adulter- 
ation of lard by applying this test. The operation is a simple one and is 
conducted in the apparatus shown in Fig. ii. A common test tube about 
24 centimeters in length and 5 centimeters in diameter is hung as indicated 
in the figure, and provided with a stopper carrying a thermometer in the 
center with a bent glass rod stirrer passed loosely through the stopper en 
the side and a funnel for the introduction of the acid on another side of 
the thermometer. A coil which is on the stirring rod is so arranged as to 

permit the bulb of the ther- 
mometer to pass through ils 
center. 

Manipulation. — Fifty cubic 
centimeters of the fat or oil 
to be examined are placed in 
the test tube and warmed or 
cooled, as the case may be, 
until the temperature is the 
one required for the begin- 
ning of the experiment, say 
35 degrees C; 10 cubic cen- 
timeters of the strongest sul- 
furic acid at the same tem- 
perature are placed in the 
funnel, the stopper being 
firmly fixed in its place; the 
test tube containing the oil 
is placed in a non-conducting 
receptacle; the wooden cylin- 
der lined with cork, used in 
sending glass bottles by mail, 
is found to be convenient for 
Fig. II. this purpose. The glass rod 

or stirrer which fits loosely in 
the stopper, so as to be moved rapidly up and down, is held by the right hand 
of the operator; with his left hand he opens the glass stop-cock of the funnel 
and allows the sulfuric acid to flow in upon the oil. The glass stirring rod 
is now moved rapidly up and down, for about 20 seconds, thus securing a 
thorough mixture of the oil and acid. The mercury rises rapidly in the 
thermometer and after two or three minutes reaches a maximum, and then, 
after two or three minutes more, begins to descend. The reading is made 
at the maximum point reached by the mercury. With pure cottonseed oil, 
linseed oil and some other substances the ri.se of temperature is so great as 




AVERAGE PROPERTIES OF STEAM LARD. 75 

to produce ebullition in the mass, causing it to foam up and fill the tube. 
To avoid this, smaller quantities of acid should be used or the oil in question 
be diluted with a less thermogenic one, so that the maximum temperature 
may not be high enough to produce the effect cited. 

Chemical Properties. — Volatile Acids. — The quantity of volatile acid 
arising on the decomposition of a soap made by the saponification of lard 
is very minute in lard of high quality. The total amount of volatile acid 
should not be in excess of that necessary to saturate .2 cubic centimeter of 
deci-normal alkali solution. 

Fixed Acid. — The quantity of fixed acid, consisting principally of oleic 
and stearic, in pure lard should not be less than 93 percent. The total 
quantity of free acid in lard, that is, acid uncombined with the glycerine, 
should not exceed one-half of one percent, and in neutral lard should be 
much less than this. 

Qiiantity of lodin Absorbed. — All common fats and oils have the property 
of absorbing, under given conditions, certain quantities of iodin. Lard 
of the highest quality should not absorb more than 60 percent of its weight 
of iodin. The lard made from the feet and certain other parts of the animal, 
however, may have a larger iodin number, rising as high as 75 or even 80. 

Properties of Lard. — The average properties of different classes of 
lard in relation to physical and optical conditions are shown in the follow- 
ing table: 







Refractive 


Rise of Temperature 




Iodin 


Specific Gravity. 


Melting Point. 


Index. 


WITH Sulfuric Acid. 


Water. 


Absorbed. 


35° C. 


° C. 


25° C. 


° C. 


Percent. 


Percent. 



.9053 40.7 1.4620 41.5 .077 62.48 

The above table is the average composition of nineteen samples of lard fur- 
nished under affidavits of purity and which appear from their chemical and 
physical properties to be composed purely of the fat of swine taken from 
those parts of the animal usually devoted to lard making. The average 
data may be regarded as representing the properties of the ordinary pure 
commercial lard on the market. 

Average Properties of Steam Lard. — Below is given the average com- 
position of eleven samples of steam lard furnished under affidavit and, appar- 
ently, as judged by their chemical and physical properties, composed solely of 
the fat of swine. Steam lards are not of as high a quality as the lards con- 
tained in the preceding table. They have usually a distinctively strong 
odor, quite different from that of lards which are rendered in open kettles 
at low temperature and from selected portions of fat. 

Refractive Rise of Temperature Iodin 

Specific Gravity. Melting Point. Index. with Sulfuric Acid. Water. Absorbed. 

35° C. ° C. 25° C. ° C. Percent. Percent. 

.9055 37.0 1-4623 39.9 .109 62.86 



76 MEATS. 

Properties of Adulterated Lards. — It is possible to mix together 
the different materials used in making adulterated lard in such a manner 
as to produce a compound which in some respects resembles the natural 
product. This compound, however, necessarily differs from the natural 
product in its physical and microscopic properties and in its reaction with 
various chemicals which give distinct color with the different fats and oils 
used as adulterants. The mean properties of thirteen samples of mixed 
or compound lards are shown in the following table: 

Refractive Rise of Temperature 
Specific Gravity. Melting Point. Index. with Sulfuric Acid. Water. Iodin. 

35° C. ° C. 25^ C. ° C. Percent. Percent. 

.9060 40.6 1.4634 46.5 .098 63.58 

These lards, in addition to the above properties, show distinct color reac- 
tion with sulfuric and nitric acid and with the reagents which are distinctive 
of cottonseed oil. They are mostly mixtures of lard and tallow stearin 
with cotton oil or cotton oil stearin. 

In addition to the adulterations already mentioned, as mixing with cotton- 
seed oil, may be added the use of cocoanut oil. It is not probable that in the 
United States any adulteration of lard with coconut oil has been made for 
commercial purposes. Such an adulteration, however, is practiced in some 
foreign countries. Coconut oil contains considerable quantities of volatile 
acid, and, therefore, when used as an adulterant of lard, would increase the 
normal quantity of volatile acid materially. One sample examined by Allen, 
of England, was found to contain a quantity of coconut oil, amounting to 
33 percent. 

Summary. — In the preceding pages has been given a description of the 
character of lard, the sources from which it is made, the method of its prep- 
aration, its chemical and physical properties and the common adulterations 
to which it is subjected. There is no question of the wholesomeness of 
the usual fats and oils, or parts thereof, which are used in the sophistica- 
tion of lards. The adulteration is intended solely for fraudulent purposes, 
that is, to sell under the name of a higher priced article one of a lower price. 

There are many persons who prefer to use vegetable oils and fats as sub- 
stitutes for lard in all cases. It is only fair to the consumer that the character 
of a fat and oil, however, for edible purposes be plainly made known to the 
purchaser. He is then to judge of the propriety or impropriety of using the 
articles in question. It seems quite certain that the use of vegetable oils 
and fats will be greatly increased in this country. All hygienists grant that 
they are at least equally as wholesome as the animal fat and oil. They are 
certainly less open to suspicion as having been derived from diseased sources. 
As a rule, they are carefully expressed and properly refined, free from ran- 
cidity and from any mechanical or chemical constituents which render them 



PREPARATION OF SOUP STOCK. 77 

unpalatable or unwholesome. They are generally much cheaper, perhaps 
the only exception being that of olive oil. These vegetable oils, as a rule 
are excellent for salad dressing, for frying and general cooking purposes 
and for the ordinary uses to which lard and other animal fats are devoted. 
A proper labeling of all such packages would increase the quantity consumed, 
restoring confidence to the public in the character of the goods purchased, 
and prove of mutual benefit to the grower, the manufacturer and the con- 
sumer. It must be remembered, however, that there are many people who 
prefer the animal fats, and so there will probably always be a large field for 
their use. Such consumers are entitled to secure the pure article, properly 
prepared from healthy animals and free from rancidity and organic 
impurities. Lard \nd other animal fats offered in this way will have a greater 
vogue, command a greater degree of confidence and secure a larger trade 
than if sold under conditions engendering suspicion and distrust. 



SOUPS. 

Classification of Soups. — The soups which are commonly consumed are 
divided into two great classes — those of animal and those of vegetable origin. 
Any liquid or semi-liquid preparation of a meat or vegetable or the two com- 
bined which may or may not carry particles of solid substances is classed 
with these preparations. Soups are generally used at the beginning of a 
meal, usually at dinner-time, and, as a rule, do not have any very high nutri- 
tive value. That they have a useful function cannot be denied, since the in- 
troduction of a small quantity of a condimental and slightly nutritive warm 
liquid into the stomach at the beginning of dinner tends to stimulate the secre- 
tive glands of the stomach walls to greater activity and thus to promote 
digestion. Soup should be regarded pre-eminently as a condimental and not 
as a nutritive substance. 

Preparation of Stock. — In the making of stock the base of the material, 
as a rule, is that part of the meat and bone soluble in hot water. The best 
way of preparing this stock is as follows: 

The meat and bones selected should be fresh, free from all impurities 
and be derived solely from healthy animals as soon as they have been slaugh- 
tered. Inasmuch as the shape of the material used is of little consequence 
the parts of the carcass that are cut away in the preparation of the usual cuts 
of the marketable meats are utilized for stock making. The flesh should be 
cut into fragments of proper size and the bones broken up into small pieces. 
This material with the appropriate amount of water and salt is placed in a 
vessel capable of being closed in such a way that no aqueous vapor will es- 
cape, and a slight degree of pressure, equal to the half of an atmosphere, can be 
sustained. Simple forms of digesters are made for this purjHJSC which are 



78 MEATS. 

perfectly safe at low pressvire and supplied with a safety valve so as to allow 
steam to escape if the pressure runs too high. Several hours of digestion are 
necessary for the preparation of stock, and if an ordinary vessel is used care 
must be exercised that the liquid does not evaporate so as to make the mass 
dry. Stirring from time to time assists the solution of the soluble substances. 
After the extraction is complete the liquid contents are poured off and the solid 
material pressed gently to separate the liquid held in solution. The mass 
is then put in a cool place and allowed to stand until thoroughly cooled and 
all the fat particles are collected at the top. The fat is then removed and the 
resulting liquid strained to remove any solid particles. The clear solution 
thus obtained is set aside and used as stock in the preparation of the various 
forms of soups. When properly flavored and used by itself it produces the 
soup known as consomme. 

The soup stock made in this way usually contains not less than 95 per- 
cent of water and not more than 5 percent of nutritive matter. Many 
of the clear soups prepared in this way contain very much less nutritive matter, 
sometimes as low as one percent. It is evident, therefore, that the soup 
stock is valuable as a condiment and flavoring and not as a food. 

The number of soups which can be made from soup stock is practically 
unlimited. They are formed by the admixture, chiefly of vegetables cut 
into small pieces, of starchy materials, mashed peas or beans, particles of 
potato, fragments of parched bread, and in fact almost any nutritive and 
palatable substance which the cook may wish to employ. 

A soup made from a stock of the above description with pea flour was 
found to have the following composition: 

Water, 88.26 percent 

Protein, 3-38 " 

Fat, 93 

Ash, 1. 13 " 

Starch and other carbohydrates, 6.30 " 

A soup made with potatoes from stock of the above description was found 
to have the following composition: 

Water, 90.96 percent 

Protein,...., 1.37 " 

Fat, 1.53 

Ash, 99 " 

Starch and other carbohydrates, 5-^3 " 

The French make soups which are very well known and highly valued 
by cutting vegetables, such as carrots, beets, radishes and other vegetable 
substances, into small pieces and adding them to the soup stock. 

Oyster Soup. — A soup made of milk, cream, flour, condiments, oysters 
and the liquid of oysters is very largely eaten in the United States. The dif- 



BEEF EXTRACT. 79 

ference between oyster soup unfl o\ster stew is chietly in the amount of 
oysters employed. 

Green Turtle Soup. — A soup stock prepared as above described and fla- 
vored with pieces of green turtle is a very common dish. 

Mock Turtle Soup. — A soup made in imitation of a turtle soup in which 
veal takes the place of turtle for flavoring is known as mock turtle soup. 

Clam Soup or Clam Chowder.— This is a soup made of clams in the same 
way that o}ster soup is made. When the clams are cut into small pieces 
and are in great ajjundance and when potatoes are used in large quantities 
in the mixture it is known as clam chowder. 

Beef Extract. — It is evident that a beef extract is only a soup or a soup 
stock specially prepared from beef. Beef extract first became known by 
the researches of the celebrated chemist Liebig, and has passed from a mere 
local preparation to an article which is important in commerce. Factories 
have been established in localities far removed from the principal markets of 
the world, but where cattle are extremely plentiful, as in South America, and 
the preparation of beef extract is carried on on a large scale, the meat of 
the animal being thrown away after the preparation of the extract. The 
method of preparing beef extract is practically that described for making a 
soup stock under pressure. Instead of using only the trimmings and refuse 
of the animal, however, usually the whole of the flesh is employed. The 
bones are sometimes used in the making of a beef extract. The sound, fresh 
meat is cut into small pieces and extracted under pressure as already described. 
After cooking and filtering the product it is brought, in vacuo, to a proper 
consistence. Meat extract is, therefore, simply a concentrated soup stock. 
It requires about thirty-four pounds of meat to yield one pound of concentrated 
extract, and this extract may be diluted for consumption so as to make from 
six to seven gallons of beef tea. The composition of the ordinary beef extract 
of commerce shows that it contains from 15 to 20 percent of moisture, from 
17 to 23 percent of ash and from 50 to 60 percent of meat bases, that is, 
the soluI)le nitrogenous contents of meat. The bones and tendons are not 
used in making beef extract on account of the introduction of considerable 
quantities of gelatine into the material. Liebig does not recommend the 
presence of gelatine in beef extract because, being cheaper in cjuality, it is 
an adulteration of the genuine article, which should contain only the pure 
bases and not the gelatinous principle of the meat in the tendons and bones. 

Character of Nitrogenous Bodies in Beef Extract. — When beef extract 
is prepared according to the Liebig method those nitrogenous bodies com- 
monly known as meat bases are found in the concentrated extract. In a 
beef extract which contains a total of 9.28 percent of nitrogen the quantity 
of nitrogen in the form of nitrogenous compounds which were found therein 
is as follows: Nitrogen in the form of soluble albumin, — trace; in the form 



So MEATS. 

of albumoses, — 1.17, in the form of peptone, — trace; in the form of meat 
bashes, — 6.81; in the form of ammonia compounds, — .47; in the form of un- 
enumerated compounds, — .83. The chief meat bases which form the principal 
part of the substance are creatin, creatinin, xanthin, carnin and carnic acid. 
There are many different forms of beef extract upon the market, some- 
times called by fanciful names and sometimes by the name of the manu- 
facturer. Among the fanciful names are some which indicate origin or kind. 
The extracts which bear the names of the manufacturers are very numerous, 
but all of these extracts are essentially of the same character. One of these 
is a meat extract in which some of the meat fiber is contained. The quantity 
of meat fiber which is used varies, but is not very great. A comparison of 
the dry substance in a preparation of the class mentioned above with the 
dry substance in meat shows the following relation: 



Protein. Meat Bases. Ash and Mineral Matter. 
Percent. Percent. Percent. 

Extract, 4Q.7 25.6 24.7 

Meat, 86.7 7.8 5.3 

The above data show that the extract is essentially different in its composi- 
tion from dried meat and has added to it a large quantity of meat fiber or the 
meat rendered soluble by some kind of treatment. 

Nutritive Properties. — It cannot be denied that meat extract, as has been 
said in the case of soup stock, contains only a small part of nutritive matter. 
This nutritive substance is in a state of solution and probably is more readily 
absorbed than a similar amount of other nutritives in the form of ordinary 
meat. Its chief value as a nutrient, therefore, is not in the amount of nu- 
trient material which it contains, but in the ease and speed with which it may 
become absorbed into the circulation. In case of illness this is often a very 
important point. It is not a question so much of the utilization of a large 
amount of nutrients as the absorption and assimilation in small quantities 
which will sustain life until the disordered conditions disappear. For these 
reasons the meat extracts have a value. There is, however, little doubt of 
the fact that in the popular mind a great deal more credit is given to meat 
extracts than should properly belong to them. They must be regarded 
principally as condimental and incident to nutrition rather than as nutri- 
tive substances. The claims which are made by the manufacturers are 
sometimes misleading, as, for instance, that one pound of extract contains 
the nutritive properties of many pounds of meat. Such a statement, cf 
course, is absurd upon its face and should not be allowed to go unchallenged. 
Even when meat extracts are reinforced by the addition of soluble or com- 
minuted fiber, as is often the case, the quantity of nourishment is very small 
as compared with a similar weight of meat itself. 



BEEF JUICE. 8 1 

It is not intended by the above remarks to cast any discredit upon the value 
of beef extract, as its value has been attested in numerous cases. It is only 
designed to call attention to the fact that as food these extracts have com- 
paratively little value. They may be useful as stimulants or as condimental 
substances or as a means of speedily introducing a soluble nutrient in the 
case of disease where it is extremely important that even small amounts of 
nutritious material should enter the body. 

Beef Juice. — A distinction is made between a beef extract and a beef 
juice. The latter term applies solely to the liquid naturallv remaining in 
the fresh meat after its proper preparation for consumption, that is, after 
the withdrawal of the blood and the proper cooling and storing of the flesh. 
The fresh meat is then subjected to strong pressure and the juices which 
are extracted are concentrated in vacuo to the proper consistence. The 
meat of old bulls is often used. A true beef juice must be extracted from 
the cold meat and not with the aid of heat, hot water or other solvents. It is 
difficult to preserve an extract of this kind without sterilization, and the heat 
required for sterilization is likely to coagulate some of the albuminous material 
which is expressed. It is a great temptation, therefore, in some cases to pre- 
serve the beef juice by a chemical preservative other than common salt. 
Boric acid and sulfite of soda may be used for this purpose, but these substances 
are objectionable on the score of possible injury to health. Glvcerine is also 
used. Inasmuch as these juices are usually given to invalids or those whose 
digestive functions are impaired it is most important that injurious sub- 
stances should be omitted. In case of pressure it is advisable, in some cases, 
to chop the meat very fine, and in this comminuted condition extract the 
juice with cold water. This does not produce any change in the character 
of the juice and the water is subsequently removed by evaporation at a low 
temperature in vacuo. Beef juices are usually prepared from heated meats. 

Composition oj Beef Juice. — The composition of beef juice from difTerenf 
parts of meat which was previously heated externally is shown in the follow- 
ing table. 

COMPOSITION OF BEEF JUICE AND MEAT EXTRACT. 

Beef Juice. Meat Extract. 

Water, 90-65 2 1 .66 

Ash, 1.36 20.46 

NaCl (salt), 15 5.47 

P2O5 (phosphoric acid), 36 4.55 

Fat, 19 .50 

Acid (as lactic) , 15 8.42 

Nitrogen (total), 1.15 7.66 

" insoluble and coaguable, 68 .48 

" as proteoses, 04 2.02 

" as peptones, 14 i-Qo 

" meat bases, 30 3.05 

" creatin, .75 

" xanthin bases, .04 

" ammonia, -21 

7 



82 MEATS. 

The above analyses show the general character of meat juice extracted 
first by externally heating the meat and then pressing. They show that 
there is less nitrogenous material present in meat juice than there is in meat 
extracts. It is evident that meat juices cannot be heated for sterilization 
without coagulation of the albumins. When it is advisable to use a beef juice 
in a case of illness it is far better to prepare it at the time when it is used 
than to prepare it on a commercial scale and preserve it by any of the 
chemical means in vogvie. Meat juice can be very well prepared for domestic 
use by chopping the meat very fine, placing it in a vessel, heating to 140° 
F., and pressing it by any simple means, as, for instance, with the hand or 
by using an ordinary lemon squeezer. The juice obtained in this way can 
be flavored with salt and spices to suit the taste of the patient, and used imme- 
diately. In some cases, in order to get a greater yield, pure cold water may 
be mixed with the chopped meat and a somewhat dilute juice obtained but 
giving a greater yield of nutritive material for the same weight of meat. 

Various names, fanciful and otherwise, are given to the so-called beef juices. 
These names are either fanciful or, as in the case of beef extracts, that of the 
manufacturer. Some of the fanciful names are, like those already mentioned, 
suggestive of origin. Some of these have large quantities of coagulable 
protein, like album -n, while others have such small quantities as to indicate 
that they are not wholly beef juice. In the case of some of these prepara- 
tions there is some indication that they are prepared chiefly from blood 
and thus are not true meat juices. Naturally there must be particles of 
blood in a meat juice and the mere occurrence of blood cells would not be 
an indication that blood itself had been used in its preparation. By rea- 
son of these facts the use of so-called meat juices is restricted. They con- 
tain relatively very little nutritive material, they are sometimes preserved 
with harmful chemicals and they may be made from blood, and in general 
there is such a degree of secrecy attending their preparation as to warrant the 
physician and patient to confine themselves to the domestic article prepared 
at the time of using. Another objection which is not of a hygienic character 
is found in the great expense of securing a very little nourishment by this 
means. The quantity of juice which meat will yield is very small and, there- 
fore, the relative expense for any given quantity of nourishment is far greater 
than it is even in the case of beef extract. While in the case of rich patients 
an objection like this is of little value, in the great majority of cases it should 
be given due consideration. 

Soluble Meats. — Various attempts have been made to put soluble meats 
upon the market for use, especially for invalids and in cases of disordered 
digestion. The principle which underlies the preparation of these meats 
is to subject them to a certain degree of artificial digestion, by means of which 
the protein matter becomes converted into soluble forms, either albumose. 



PREPARATION OF BLOOD. 83 

proteose or peptone. The process which is employed is a simple one, namely, 
the comminution of the meat into as fine particles as possible and its admix- 
ture with hydrochloric acid and pepsin. It is then subjected to artificial 
digestion until a considerable portion of the meat is soluble. Another method 
of preparation is to omit the pepsin and after the addition of hydrochloric 
acid to place the meat in a digestor where it is subjected to a temperature 
of steam under pressure for a considerable length of time. A goodly pro- 
portion of the meat becomes soluble under this process. After the prepara- 
tion is completed the residual hydrochloric acid is neutralized by carbonate 
of soda, forming common salt, which gives the proper flavor to the com- 
pound. 

The composition of soluble meat prepared in this way is given in the fol- 
lowing table (Foods and Principles of Dietetics, by Robert Hutchinson): 

Water, 67.21 percent 

Fat, 5.0.3 

Albumin, 1 1 .00 " 

Peptone, 6.5 1 " 

Meat extract, 7.55 " 

Ash and salt, 1.74 " 

A meat solution of this kind is not really a solution, since not only is that 
part which passes into solution contained in it, but also the residual meat 
fibers which are not dissolved but so softened by the process that they lose 
their distinct form and can be rubbed up to a thick pasty mass. The prod- 
uct, therefore, consists not only of the part of the meat rendered thoroughly 
soluble in water by the process, but also of a residual part, softened and reduced 
to a paste. The mass has practically the same nutritive value as an equiva- 
lent amount of meat with the claimed advantage that a large portion of 
it is already soluble. This partial predigestion may be of value in cases of 
disease or disordered digestion of any kind, but there is no reason for believ- 
ing that the healthy stomach requires any sort of artificial predigestion for 
the proper conduct of its functions. On the other hand, there is every reason 
for supposing that any kind of predigestion which is at all effective will in 
the end prove injurious to healthy digestive organs by depriving them of a 
part of their normal functions and thus tending to bring them to a condition 
of feebleness which may result in the omission, in i)art, of the normal func- 
tions of the vital organs. 

Preparations of Blood. — There is no doubt of the valuable nutritive prop- 
erties of blood and its preparations are sometimes used as foods. There 
is a deep-seated prejudice against the use of blood as human food, doubtless 
based on older and more effective grounds than even the laws of health pro- 
mulgated by Moses. Man is an animal of some refinement of character 
and the sight or use of blood is repugnant to his finer instincts. Sometimes 
blood is dried and powdered and the blood powder mixed M'ith other food. 



84 MEATS. 

Another method is to coagulate the blood, then remove the coagulated portion 
and use the residue for food purposes. This preparation, of course, contains 
no coagulable portions of blood, that is, the protein thereof known as fibrin. 
There is no reason for believing that preparations of blood will ever occupy 
any prominent position in the food supply, either of persons in health or 
of invalids. 

Beef Tea. — A very common food preparation from beef is that known as beef 
tea. In all essential particulars beef tea is nothing more than a rich unfiltered 
soup stock. Inasmuch, however, as it is constantly prescribed in many kinds 
of illness and is prepared under certain conditions it should be mentioned speci- 
ally here in addition to the preparations already described. As in the case 
of meat juice, beef tea should always be prepared in the home, and im- 
mediately before using. It is a preparation which can not be properly made 
and kept without the addition of some preservative which renders it totally 
unfit for human consumption. The very choicest portion of the beef should be 
selected in the preparation of beef tea and it should be reduced to a fine state of 
comminution. The removal of the fat and tendons should be as complete as. 
possible, as particularly the latter tend to add to the extract more of the 
gelatine-like principles than is desirable. The fragments should be mixed with 
a sufificient quantity of cold water to make the desired amount of beef tea, 
usually one pound of water to a pound of comminuted beef is a good proportion. 
The mixture should be kept cold for a considerable length of time with fre- 
quent stirrings in order to extract as much as possible of the nitrogenous 
matter which becomes coagulated by heating. Salt may be used not only to 
promote the solubility but also to give the proper taste. After the lapse of an 
hour or more the vessel may be covered and gradually warmed. During this 
warming the mass should be frequently stirred so to as promote the solution. 
When finally the extraction is complete, before the tea is administered it should 
be cooked, that is, heated to the boiling-point, by which process the soluble 
protein is coagulated but not hardened, and the material is rendered more 
palatable. The beef tea should be administered without separating the co- 
agulated fragments of albuminous material, which is in a state easily digestible, 
and adds much to the nutritive value of the mixture. Finally the residue of 
beef may be put into a bag and subjected to pressure to remove as much of the 
juice contained therein as possible. The difference between beef tea and soup 
stock, as will be seen, is largely in the filtering. The beef tea should retain 
the coagulated flocks, while in the soup stock they are removed. One pound of 
good lean beef and one pint of water yield about one-half pound of good beef 
tea. As in the case of soup stock, beef tea is not a very nutritive substance. It 
is, however, stimulating, and the nourishment which it contains is quickly ab- 
sorbed. The soft, coagulated flocks of albumin are readily digested, and often a 
patient may be nourished for days on a preparation of this kind when he is in 



DRIED AND POWDERED MEATS. 85 

a condition which renders it impracticable to use either soKd or other liquid 
foods. 

Beef tea is also made on a large commercial scale and with some degree of 
ap])roximation to the home prepared article. For various reasons, however, 
which ha\e already been advanced, a well made domestic beef tea which can 
be used as soon as prepared is to be preferred in all cases to the manufactured 
article. A beef tea properly made has approximately the following com 
position : 

Water, ScS.oo pcrct- nt 

Meat bases, 3. ^o " 

Protein — soluble and flocculated, 8.00 " 

Ash and salt, i . ;;o " 

Dried and Powdered Meats. — The preparation of dried meat has already 
been described. There has lately been placed upon the market a number 
of preparations dried and finely ground, under various names, fanciful and 
those of the manufacturer. Inasmuch as ordinary meats are largely composed 
of water, it is evident that if the water can be removed without impairing 
the quahty of the meat, great expense in transportation would be saved and 
the use of preservatives would be unnecessary. Various attempts, therefore, 
have been made to place dried meats upon the market. The meat ]K)W(lcrs are 
not only offered in their natural state of desiccation but also are prepared with 
some degree of artificial digestion. One of the most common of these meat 
powders is known as somatose, which has been made in large tjuantities, and 
sold throughout all parts of the world. It consists largely of albumoses rather 
than of peptones, but this is true of a great many of the so-called peptone 
preparations. The composition of somatose is represented in the following 
table (Allen's Commercial Organic Analyses, Vol. IV, page 384) : 

Water, 14-25 percent 

Albumin rendered soluble by alkali 21.83 " 

Albumin, 3.40 " 

Albumoses, 33-96 " 

Peptone, 3-°6 " 

Meat bases, 2.62 " 

Ash and salt, 5.30 " 

The above data show that the meat still contains nearly 15 percent of 
moisture and that an alkali has been used to render the ])rotein more soluble. 
This alkali has increased the quantity of mineral matter over that which would 
naturally be present. Whatever may be the relative value of the prepared 
protein matter as compared with that in the original meat, it is seen that a large 
quantity of it, practically as much as was in the original meat, has been pre- 
served in the finished product. Whether or not it is ad\isable to use a y)repara- 
tion of this kind is a question to be left with the physician. It may l)e said un- 
hesitatinglv that in all cases of health somatose could not possibly i)resent any 



86 MEATS. 

advantage over fresh meat. On the contrary, for theoretical and practical rea- 
sons, it is certain that it is less valuable. 

Composition of the Ash of Meat Juice and Meat Broth. — The principal 
mineral component of the natural juice of meat broth or meat extract is phos- 
phate of potassium, though there are also small quantities of magnesium and 
smaller quantities of calcium present. In addition to this there is a certain 
quantity of common salt present, which is determined, however, largely by the 
method of preparation. The following analysis shows the composition of the 
ash of a meat juice to which little or no common salt has been added: 

Potassium (K), 34-4o percent 

Sodium (Na), 9.70 " 

Calcium (Ca), 36 " 

Magnesium (Mg), 2.55 " 

* Phosphoric acid (PgO^), 27.00 " 

Other constituents are not determined in this analysis. The phosphate of 
potassium may therefore be regarded as the principal natural ash constituent of 
meat extract and meat juice. (Zeitschrift fiir Biologic, Vol. XII, 1876.) 

Adulteration of Meat Extract. — The principal adulterations of meat ex- 
tract have already been mentioned. The substances used in preserving it are 
of the greatest hygienic consequence. These are chiefly salt and glycerol 
or alcohol. The use of all of these substances is reprehensible. Fortunately 
they are seldom, used. Another adulteration which has been practiced is 
mixing the meat extract with extracts of yeast. The extract of yeast has 
valuable dietetic properties and contains the active principles of fermentation. 
It also resembles, in many respects, physically and chemically, the extract of 
meat, and can, therefore, be mixed with meat extract, and, being a cheaper 
article, forms a mixture which can be sold at a greater profit. The presence 
of yeast extract in meat extract can easily be determined by treating the mix- 
ture with a strong solution of sulfate of zinc and filtering. In meat extract 
the filtrate obtained is always quite clear, but when a yeast extract is present 
the filtrate is turbid. 

Active Principles Contained in Meat Extract.^ — Attention has alreadv 
been called to some of the more important active principles, namely, meat bases 
which form a valuable portion of meat extract. There are various forms of 
nitrogenous bodies, however, besides meat bases, which become sokible natur- 
ally in meat or by the treatment of meat with digesti\'c ferments. Lean meat, 
as is well known, consists almost exclusively of protein matter and water. 
This protein matter is principally insoluble. Under the action of digestive 
ferments the protein of meat becomes broken up into more soluble bodies, 
known as albumoses, proteoses and peptones, — the latter being the final product 
of solution. These bodies are still true protein bodies containing the element 
sulfur as one of their essential constituents. The meat bases, on the con- 



RELATION BETWEEN PRICE AND VALUE OF A NUTRITIVE EXTRACT. 87 

trarv, contain the other elements that arc m protehi but do not have the sulfur 
element. They belong to that class of bodies which is known as simple 
amido compounds. All of these bodies are mixed together in meat juice or 
beef extract, and it is an important task of the chemist to separate them, 
both that they may be identified and that their relative abundance may be 
closely determined. There is also another soluble or semisoluble protein sub- 
stance in these extracts derived from the tendinous tissues and bones, namely, 
the gelatine or glue. This is quite a common product, being the soluble 
protein procured by the digestion of the tendons and bones. It is important, 
therefore, that the chemist should distinguish between the gelatine and the 
amido bodies. There is also a true and a false protein form of these soluble 
bodies, the true one being formed by natural proteolytic ferments and the false 
one being formed by heat or digestion under pressure of steam. The chemist 
should also be able to distinguish between the true extract formed directly 
from the meat and the yeast extract used as an adulteration. 

It is not the purpose of this manual to enter into the details of how these 
different bodies may be distinguished from one another, as that is purely a 
chemical study. It is due, however, to the general reader that some 
explanation be given of the different classes of bodies which are contained in 
these extracts. 

Relation between the Price of an Extract and its Nutritive Value. — 
The studies made in the Bureau of Chemistry show that there is little relation 
between the price of a beef extract and its real nutritive value. In three cases 
of extract which are all well known brands and are of the thick or pasty variety, 
showing that a dissolved meat had been added to them, the average weight of a 
package costing 45 cents was only 55 grams, or nearly a cent a gram. In an- 
other three samples of extract, also well known brands, of the same pasty 
variety and costing little more per package, it was found that the weight of the 
more expensive variety was doul)le that of the first, costing only one-half cent 
per gram. In the case of the liquid extracts where no pasty material is incor- 
porated there is still greater variation in the relation of the price to the nutritive 
constituents. An extract which retails for one dollar per bottle contains gi.69 
percent of water and only .42 percent of nitrogen. Another so-called meat 
extract which retails at 60 cents per bottle must have been wholly an artificial 
product, since it contained no creatin or creatinin at all. It was also preserved 
by the addition of alcohol and contained an artificial coloring matter. 

The ash existing in these extracts is, of course, usually due to the pres- 
ence of large quantities of common salt. Sodium chloric! is added to this 
extract without any definite rule at all and sometimes in very excessive 
quantities. In some cases thirty percent of the total extract is composed of 
common salt. In other words, a person taking a solution of this kind would be 
injecting into his stomach a very concentrated brine. When common salt may 



85 MEATS. 

be sold at the rate of one dollar per pound, the profit on the transaction is one 
which ought to make the business exceedingly attractive. 

The total phosphoric acid in the ash also shows variations, and if it were 
not so easy to add artificial phosphoric acid the actual amount present might be 
taken as a base by which quality could be judged. In the natural extract the 
total phosphoric acid should be in the proportion to organic phosphoric acid as 
lo to I, which is the natural condition in which it is found in meat extract. In 
many cases the amount of inorganic phosphorus is so great as to render it 
certain that a phosphate, probably the phosphate of soda, has been added. 
In another case the cjuantity of organic phosphoric acid was very much greater 
than could have possibly been the case in a natural product, indicating the 
addition of lecithin or glycerophosphoric acid. The amount of fat in beef ex- 
tract, Avhen properly prepared, should be very small and should certainly not 
exceed one percent, since by the proper method of preparation the fat is 
largely separated. In the pasty material, however, where the meat is reduced to 
a pulp and retained in the package the amount of fat will be very much greater. 

The Nitrogenous Bases. — The average nitrogen content of the pasty or 
solid extracts varies from 6 to 9 percent. The nitrogen in the meat juice is 
subject to much greater fluctuation, depending largely on the content of solids. 
Although a high nitrogen content is not a guarantee of the character or mode 
of manufacture of an extract, it is naturally expected and is desirable. 

The addition of gelatine to extracts is now largely practiced and has been for 
some years. By adding gelatine the manufacturer raises or maintains a certain 
nitrogen content, but supplies the nitrogen in a form lacking in all quickly 
stimulating qualities, and the natural flavor of the meat extract nitrogen is 
lowered. The buyer is consequently deprived of the characteristic essentials of 
a beef extract although the nitrogen content is relatively high. In many cases 
only a small proportion of the original gelatine exists in the extract as such. 
The gelatine is converted by a gradual process of hydration into gelatoses and 
gelatine peptones. While the separation of gelatine from protein matter is a 
process in anything but a satisfactory condition, it is a far simpler process than 
the detection and separation of gelatoses and gelatine peptones from albuminoses 
and peptones. The question has not been thoroughly studied up to date. 

The question of adulteration of meat extracts wnth gelatine is not the only 
form of adulteration we have to face. The mixing of varying amounts of 
yeast extract with meat extracts is being practiced at the present time in some 
countries. As we have not investigated this question, we cannot state whether it 
is practiced in this country at the present time or not. 

Kinds of Preparations. — Meat preparations of the above types in general 
may be divided into three classes, liquid extracts, pasty extracts and pow- 
dered extracts. In addition to the above, within the last few years beef ex- 
tract pellets, some of them being enclosed in gelatine capsules, have appeared 



KINDS OF PREPARATIONS. 89 

upon the market. The okl-time product of Liebig's extract belongs to the 
second class, in which we also find many of our best known brands. The 
liquid extracts are varied and numerous and their number is rapidly increas- 
ing. The amount of meat extractives in some of these liquid ])roducts is re- 
markably small, the quantity of solids in two or three cases being under lo 
percent. Alcohol is sometimes met with in these li(iuid ])re{)arati()ns. The 
meat powders are far less numerous than the extracts of the first two classes. 
They consist largely, if not entirely, of albuminoses and peptones in addition to 
some insoluble proteid matter. 

Moreover, it is necessary to distinguish between a meat extract containing 
large amounts of stimulating amido-acids and relativelv small percentages of 
albuminoses, peptones and insoluble proteid matter on the one hanrl, and, on the 
other hand, an extract, or, more properly, a meat product, which consists 
largely of albuminoses, peptones and insoluble matter and relativelv small 
amounts of amido-acids. The food value of this last group of products is un- 
doubtedly greater than that of the former group, but being sold as meat ex- 
tracts, their value should be based on the amount of extracti\-es they contain 
and not on their food value. 

The value of the amido-bodies, such as the meat bases, as food, is of uncer- 
tain character, but we must admit, as in the case of alcohol, thev can at least 
be burned and furnish energy to the body. Like alcohol, the value of meat ex- 
tractives lies principally in their stimulating qualities. The active principles 
of tea and coffee are on a similar basis. As these simpler amido-bodies are 
the final links in the long chain of hydrolytic products of the proteid molecule 
prior to the complete resolution of that molecule into carbon dioxid, water, 
etc., it is readily seen that an ounce of meat extractives (the various amido- 
bodies) represents a far larger amount of beef than an ounce of albuminoses 
does. The various ]:)rotein bodies and amido-acids are closeh- interwoven and it 
is impossible to produce amido-acids without |)roducing albuminoses and pep- 
tones. Consequently, every commercial meat extract must consist partly of 
albuminoses, peptones, etc. The best of our extracts on the market to-day 
contain about 50 percent of their total nitrogen in the form of meat base 
nitrogen. When an extract contains less than 5 percent of its nitrogen in the 
form of meat base nitrogen the term "extract" seems to be no longer applica- 
ble. It is evident that the product represents much less meat than an extract 
with 50 percent of its nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen, provided 
the total nitrogen in both cases is approximately equal. 

The proteid matter coagulated by heating to boiling, as well as the proteid 
matter insoluble in cold water, are both undesirable factors in an extract of 
meat. As a rule, the lower the proportion of these constituents, the higher 
the character of the meat extract. The same thing holds true in regard to the 
presence of albuminoses and peptones. 



90 



MEATS. 



The quantity of total nitrogen in the form of meat base nitrogen in the best 
extracts reaches 50 percent. In one of the poorest it is 3.82 percent. The 
food value of the latter product might be greater than that of the former, but its 
cost of manufacture and its stimulating value are much less. 

Creatin figures are very interesting and of much value in determining the 
source and value of an extract. Creatin is the principal amido-body found in 
meat, consequently we expect to find it or creatinin, its hydrated form, in still 
larger quantities in meat extracts. In several cases which came under our 
notice where the extract acted suspiciously, the creatin values were nil, and in 
such cases grave doubts exist as to the source of the extract. Our best extracts 
give high creatin as well as high meat base figures. 

The xanthin bases and ammonia nitrogen figures present a variety of 
problems. While the xanthin bases are desirable constituents, ammonia in 
any amount is not. It is questionable whether the ammonia figures obtained 
by the magnesium oxid method do not give too high results (W. D. Bigelow). 

Gelatine. — Gelatine is a substance obtained from the nitrogenous portions 
of bones, hide, horns, hoofs, connective tissue, tendons and other nitrogenous 
matter of the animal. One of the principal constituents of these bodies is a 
substance known as collagen. When this is heated either under pressure or 
without pressure it is changed to gelatine. Glue is unrefined gelatine or 
impure gelatine to which usually some substance has been added to increase 
its holding power. A type of gelatine known as isinglass is made from the 
bladders of sturgeons. 

The general process of manufacturing gelatine is as follows (Whipple, 
Technology Quarterly, Vol. XV, No. 2, June, 1902): 

" The hide scraps are first macerated and subjected to the action of a solution 
of lime or caustic soda in pits for two or three weeks. This dissolves most of 
the blood and saponifies the fats. The excess of lime or soda is then largely 
removed by washing and the solution steamed to dissolve the gelatine, but an 
excess of heat is avoided. Sulfurous acid is used to bleach the gelatine. When 
of sufficient strength, the gelatine is allowed to harden in molds or on slabs, and 
is ultimately dried in sheets on wire nets. Bone gelatine is made in a some- 
what similar manner. The bones are crushed, boiled, treated with hydro- 
chloric acid, and the gelatine is dissolved as before, washed, bleached and dried 
in sheets. The process requires a number of weeks." 

Gelatine is also made from bones, fresh as well as old, and from the resi- 
dues of bones used in the manufacture of buttons. The thin slices of the 
bones are treated with acid until all the phosphate of lime is extracted. 
They are then treated with lime and the gelatinous residue is then dissolved 
in warm water and purified for use. 

The use of gelatine as a food has of late years become very common. 
The ease with which it can be made into jellies, the consistence which. 



GELATINE. 



91 



it gives to ice-cream and its general utility in the cuisine have made it deservedly 
popular. Gelatine is the product of some of the nitrogenous parts of the 
animal and should be made only from the edible parts thereof. It is particu- 
larly abundant in the tendinous portions of the animal and in the tissues about 
the head, from which a large part of edible gelatine is made. No portion of 
the animal which is filthy or unfit for food should ever enter into the composi- 
tion of the gelatine. If the parts from which the gelatine are made are cured 
previous to manufacture they should be cured in a jK^fectly sanitary w-ay, as 
carefully as any other part of the meat. There can be no objection to the use 
of gelatine made from these sanitary materials in foods of all kinds. 

There is, however, a possibility that some of the gelatines on the market 
may be made from materials wholly unfit for food. The food law forbids 
the use of animal substances unfit for food either directly or indirectly. As 
an illustration of this condition of affairs I may call attention to the fact that 
a part of the gelatines sold in the United States are made from parts of animals 
slaughtered in South America. It is not known to the consumer in what 
conditions these parts are preserved and transported. They may be possibly 
packed with the hide and sent to Belgium or other countries in a filthy, 
putrid and abhorrent state and these parts be cut from the hides before they 
are sent to the tanneries and converted into gelatine and sold as edible gela- 
tine. Such a possibility should not exist, and there is no danger of its existence 
with high class manufacturers. A part of the horns is also used for such 
purposes, which being of an inedible portion and unfit for food is not admis- 
sible, under the law, as a constituent of edible gelatine. All such materials 
should be excluded in the manufacture of such an important product. Further 
than this, it may be stated that the line of demarcation between gelatine 
and glue is not always as well drawn as it should be, and this is illustrated 
in the report that the gelatine and glue are manufactured in the same factory, 
and the same conditions of odor and insanitation which adhere to glue 
may attach themselves to the gelatine. Such a condition, of course, would 
be an exceptional case, but its possibility should be excluded. Under the 
food law only those forms of gelatine first described above can be legally 
made and sold for use in food. 

Adulteration of Gelatine. — The adulterations of gelatine are such as those 
referred to above in the form of raw materials employed which are insanitar}- 
and unfit for food. In addition to this, bleaching agents, namely, sulfurous 
acid or sulfites and mineral acids, are often employed in the manufacture, 
portions of which may remain in the finished article. All of these substances 
must be regarded as adulterants and as insanitary and unsuitable for gelatine, 
and to that extent unfit for human consumption. 

Presence of Tetanus in Commercial Gelatine. — The Public Health and 
Marine Hospital Service has investigated gelatine to determine whether or 



92 



MEATS. 



not it may be infected with pathogenic germs. The conclusions of the in- 
vestigation are as follows (Bulletin No. 9, Hygienic Laboratory): 

" Seven samples of gelatine examined; one showed tetanus spores. 

" Two samples showed an oval end-spore rod, whose identity was not proved, 
but, in stained specimens, it would be hard to distinguish from tetanus, if 
indeed not tetanus with diminished virulence. 

"In tetanus investigations it is important to xase freshly made bouillon, as the 
organism is apt not to germinate in bouillon over ten days old. The thermal 
death point of the organism isolated was found to be between twenty and thirty 
seconds at 100 degrees C. 

"It is important, therefore, that gelatine to be used for injections should be 
boiled at least ten minutes on account of the variabihty of the thermal death 
point in different species of tetanus. Whether this amount of heating im- 
pairs in any way the hemostatic power of gelatine has not been settled, but in 
case it does it is believed that the danger from tetanus more than overbalances 
its therapeutic value. 

" It is suggested that when, as in hospitals, there is likelihood of gelatine in- 
jections being used for hemostatic purposes the gelatine solution be sterilized by 
the fractional method on three successive days and kept ready for use in sterile 
containers." 

From the data given above it is seen that gelatine may become infected 
and the material from which it is made for edible purposes should be 
healthful, sanitary and fit for food. It is not likely that tetanus germs 
would prove dangerous when taken into the stomach, but freedom from 
infection should be secured if possible. These investigations show the 
wisdom of the pure food law in forbidding the use of parts of animals unfit for 
food, whether manufactured or not, in the production of food products. It is 
evident that a sufficient quantity of fresh, sanitary material or material 
properly preserved can be obtained in this country or in other countries to 
supply the needs for edible gelatine without resorting to the use of inedible 
parts of hides, horns, hoofs and other waste and unfit portions of the animal. 

Summary. — Above have been presented some of the principal meat 
foods, the analytical data which show their composition, the processes by 
means of which they are prepared and the principal methods, objectionable 
and otherwise, by which they are preserved. 

Meat is a staple article of diet among almost all nations of men. The 
anatomical structure of the human animal indicates that his environment 
has adapted him to eating meats of all kinds. In other words, man is an om- 
nivorous animal. He has been developed in an environment in which all 
kinds of meats and vegetables have ministered to his sustenance, and thus he 
is an omnivorous animal both by evolution and necessarily by heredity. 
That man can live and flourish without meat has been fully established by 



SUMMARY. 



93 



experiments, but that man cannot be nourished by meat alone has likewise 
been fully established, so that if the human race were necessarily to be de- 
prived either of animal or vegetable foods, it would l)e the animal food which 
must be sacrificed. 

It is not the purpose of this manual to discuss the relative merits of vege- 
tarianism as compared with the common diet of the human race. It may not 
be amiss, however, to say that probably in the United States especiallv, a 
larger quantity of meat is eaten than is either necessary or wholesome. The 
people of our country are better able to supply themselves with expensive 
foods than those of other countries, and of the common foods meats are far 
more expensive than cereals. The eating of larger quantities of cereals 
and smaller quantities of meat would probably be conducive both to 
economy and health. It appears to be certain that the meat eating of 
the future may not be regarded so much as a necessity as it has in the 
past, but that meats will be used more as condimental substances than 
as staple foods. In all meat, for instance, that costs 25 cents a pound, such 
as steaks, there is over one-third or a half of it which is inedible, so that the 
edible portion really costs double that amount. On the contrary, when a pound 
of flour or maize is purchased, the price of which is perhaps only one-eighth 
that of meat, the whole of it is edible. Thus, from the mere point of economy 
as well as of nutrition the superiority of cereals and other vegetable products 
is at once evident. On the one hand, a cereal is almost a complete food 
containing all the elements necessary to nutrition, and it costs only a few cents 
a pound. On the other hand, a steak or roast is only a partial food and it 
costs much more than cereals. 

It is hoped that one purpose of this manual ma}- be secured, namely, by 
showing the consumer the actual composition of the different kinds of food 
and their method of preparation he may be led in the selection of his food 
to follow the dictates of science and economy to a certain extent rather 
than merely the impulse of taste. The eating of such large quantities of meat 
is merely a habit which often is developed in children through the carelessness 
and ignorance of parents, much to the detriment of the child as well as to his 
future health and activity. It is believed that if the true principles of the 
use of meat were properly inculcated a large saving in the energy of the wage 
earner as well as of those in more affluent circumstances would be secured. 

Sound principles of economy establish a better condition of health and 
lead to greater activity and fruitful labor. 

Terrestrial Animal Oils. 

Terrestrial animal oils are obtained directly from parts of the animr.ls 

which yield, at ordinary temperature, a substance which remains li(|uid. 

The fats which are in the feet of the animals are usually more Hquid than 

in any other part of the body, and hence the natural animal oils are derived 



94 MEATS. 

largely from the feet. Among the most important are sheep's foot oil, horse 
foot oil, and neat's foot oil, which is obtained from the feet of cattle. These 
oils are all highly valued for technical purposes, especially for lubricating, 
and for this purpose bring a very high price. They are not used or should not 
be used for edible purposes, though they perhaps may sometimes be used 
in cooking. Neat's foot oil, especially, on account of its high price, is 
often subjected to adulteration, and is mixed for this purpose with cheap 
vegetable oils, such as cottonseed. Fish oil is also often used in the 
adulteration of neat's foot oil, though the addition of any of these oils to neat's 
foot oil raises the iodin number to a very high degree, and hence this addition 
is easily detected by the chemist. 

Lard Oil. — Lard oil is one of the most important of terrestrial animal oils. 
It is made from lard by melting it and allowing it to slowly cool. The stearin in 
the product crystallizes first, and when it reaches a condition favoring the separ- 
ation of the stearin the mass is subjected to straining or pressure, whereby 
the olein or liquid portion of the oil is separated, and thus, having been freed 
from the most of its stearin, remains liquid at ordinary temperature. The resi- 
due is known as lard stearin and is largely employed in the preparation of lard 
to give it a higher melting point and in the manufacture of oleomargarine. 

Lard oil is used to some extent for edible purposes and is itself sometimes 
employed in the manufacture of oleomargarine when mixed with tallow or 
tallow stearin. 

Properties of Lard Oil. — It is evident that the chemical and physical prop- 
erties of lard oil are determined by the completeness with which the stearin 
is separated. Inasmuch, however, as the conditions of manufacture are 
nearly constant, lard oil has characteristics of a physical and chemical nature 
which do not vary greatly. The specific gravity of lard oil at 15 degrees 
is about .916, and its iodin number varies from 68 to 75. When made of 
the best material it has a neutral taste, not an unpleasant odor, and, therefore, 
can be used for edible purposes without introducing any characteristic odor 
or flavor into the prepared food. In point of fact, however, it is not used 
to any extent for edible purposes except in the manufactured articles above 
mentioned. When carefully made and of the proper quality pure lard oil 
should be practically free from free acid. 

Adulterations. — On account of the high value of lard oil for lubricating 
and other purposes it has been subjected to extensive adulterations. The 
addition of cheaper animal oils or vegetable oils has been largely practiced. 
Fish oil, blubber oil, and other marine animal oils have also been freely used 
in the adulteration of lard oil whenever the difference in price has rendered 
it profitable. These adulterations are of such a character that they can be 
detected only by the skilled microscopist and chemist. The other animcl 
oils, both of marine and terrestrial origin, while imjiortant from a technical 
point of view, are of no significance in respect of edible quaUties. 



PART II. 

POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 



Application of Name. — The term poultry for descriptive purposes may 
be applied to those classes of feathered domesticated birds used for human 
food. It, therefore, includes practically all of the domesticated fowls. The 
term game bird, for the purpose of this manual, is applied to feathered animals 
which are wild and which are used for human food. This also may apply 
to almost all wild birds, since at times they practically all have been used for 
food purposes. Here only those in common use, both domesticated and wild, 
will be referred to. In connection with poultry the eggs of the birds will be 
considered. 

DOMESTICATED FOWLS. 

The principal domesticated fowls which are used for human food are chick- 
ens, turkeys, geese, ducks, and guinea hens. The most common of all is the 
chicken, — the next perhaps are turkeys in this country and the goose in Europe. 
The others are more infrequently used but are highly prized. 

Chicken. — The chicken scientifically is known as Gallus domesticus. 
For food purposes the chicken is eaten at various ages. The very young 
chicken is commonly called a broiler and is prepared for the table at varying 
ages from six to twelve weeks. Young chickens are also very commonly called 
spring chickens, since they occur in greater abundance in the spring than at any 
other time. Since the introduction of the modern method of inculcation, how- 
ever, the spring chicken may be had at all seasons of the year. The " broiler" 
and "spring chicken" may be regarded as synonymous terms, though the 
larger chicks are usually called spring chickens instead of broilers. 

Full Grown Chickens. — The full grown chicken is better suited for food 
when still young. The flesh loses flavor and gains in toughness as the chicken 
grows older. There is no legal limit fixing the division of chickens into dif- 
ferent classes with respect to age and the only criterion is the price and taste 
of the consumer. There is, perhaps, no objection to the use of old chickens for 
food purposes, provided they are not sold fraudulently as young chicks. The 
size and toughness of the pieces one often secures when ordering spring chicken 
is an indication that the age limit is not very definitely established. Both hens 

95 



96 



POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 



and roosters are used for food purposes, but especially the young roosters are 
devoted to food purposes while the young hens are often kept for the produc- 
tion of eggs. 

Preparation of Chickens for Food Purposes. — In former times, when the 
chickens of commerce were derived chiefly from the farm, no special prepara- 
tion was made before the chicken was marketed. The eggs were hatched in 
the old-fashioned way by the hens and the chicks sold to hucksters or in market, 
at various ages and without any special preparation or control. All this has 
been changed in later times by the introduction of scientific methods of breed- 
ting poultry. It has been demonstrated that the breeding and care of poultry 




Fig. 12.— Chicken House, Rhode Island Experiment Station. 



require as much scientific and economic attention as is devoted to any other 
successful business. 

The Incubator. — The introduction of the incubator for the hatching of eggs 
with the other necessary arrangements for the caring for }'0ung chicks has per- 
haps done more than any other one thing to revolutionize the method of pre- 
paring poultry for the market. By the use of the incubator the hatching of 
chicks is regulated with the utmost degree of nicety. A larger percentage of 
eggs produce chicks and the expense of the incubating process is greatly dimin- 
ished. The incubator is in its widest significance a thermostat in which the 
eggs may be placed and maintained constantly at the temperature of the hen's 
body, namely, about 102 degrees F. The arrangement of the chicken house 
and the other environments of the young chick are shown in Fig. 12. 



CARE OF YOUNG CHICKS. 97 

Care of Young Chicks. — The principal jjoints in ihe rare of \oung chicks are 
fresh air, freedom from infection by epidemic or contagious diseases, exclusion 
of insect pests, even high temperature, and abundance of food. The young 
chick is especially sensitive to low temperatures and must be protected from 
cold, especially from cold rains. For this reason the chicks, after hatching, 
must be kept, if it is not summer time, in a room where the temperature can Ije 
regulated until they have acquired some degree of strength and vitality. The 
temperature of the chicken house for the young birds should not be lower than 
85 or 90 degrees F. 

A temperature of about 102 degrees F. is found very favorable to the de- 
velopment of the chicks in the eggs, although the temperature may sometimes 
fall to loi or rise to 103 degrees F. without materially affecting the results. 
Experiments show that too low a temperature arrests the development of the 
chick. On the contrary there seems to be no indication that an increase of 
heat, up to 103 degrees F., has any tendency to kill the chick in the last stages 
of development. It is found best in all cases to set the eggs in the incubator 
as soon after they are laid as possible. Where the age of the egg is not known 
it should be carefully candled, that is, held up between the eye and a light in 
.order to determine its condition. In old eggs, the yolk, on candling, becomes 
more or less diffused with the white and such eggs are to be rejected for incu- 
bator purposes as they are not likely to produce chickens. The fertility of the 
egg must also be assured before placing in the incubator. An unfertilized egg 
is so much loss in the incubator since it might have been used for food purposes, 
since the egg, for marketable purposes, when fresh is just as good as a fertilized 
egg. It is an observed fact that the complete fertilization of the egg, that is, 
the proper union of the male and female germ cells, is not always complete at 
the time the egg is laid, but the mingling of the two elements takes place under 
proper conditions afterwards. The development will also depend upon the 
vitality of the germ and its component parts. Just, for instance, as the color of 
the feathers, the size of the body and the general character of the chick may be 
inherited from either parent, so the vital ciualities are much more strongl}- shown 
in some eggs than in others. The proper germination of the egg may also be 
improved by many of the conditions of environment. In the case of eggs, any 
slight change which would interfere with the functions of the yolk or albumin, 
both of which are extremely sensitive to change, would interfere with the growth 
of the embryo either by depriving it of food or subjecting it to other conditions; 
in which its vitality would be diminished or destroyed. The fertilized egg may 
be separated from the non-fertilized also by candling. At the Rhode Island 
station it is found that a very good light for candling is the ordinary calcium 
carbide bicycle lamp, placed in a proper candling box. This is a strong white 
light quite equal in power to the electric incandescent light and is not so trying 
to the eves. 



Cp8 POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 

When eggs which have been submitted to incubation permit light to 
shine through and show the yolk suspended in the upper half of the center as 
a clearly defined mass, which quickly reassumes its position in turning the egg 
with its long axis nearly horizontal, they are probably infertile or sterile. 
When, on the contrary, the yolk assumes indefinite outlines, approaching near 
the upper portion of the shell at the large end or appears with a thick spur upon 
its upper side, it maybe regarded as having started to incubate. In the later 
stages the embryo can be plainly seen, because it becomes opaque and cuts off 
more of the light. In the incubation of eggs the candling is resorted to during 
the first few days of the experiment in order that the unfertilized eggs may be 
separated. The best time for the candling, if it is practiced only once, is on the 
sixth or seventh day of incubation. By that time all the eggs which are fertilized 
will be so changed as to be easily recognized by the candling process. Ex- 
perience has shown that eggs which are more than two weeks old are not profit- 
able for use in incubators since the percentage that does not hatch is so large. 
The incubating part of the plant is sometimes placed in the cellar over which 
the brooding house is built. 

The brooding of young chicks is of the utmost significance. In Europe the 
changes in temperature are much less violent than in this country. The prin- 
cipal brooding houses in the United States are in the North where the tempera- 
ture often falls in winter to below zero while in the summer it may rise to blood 
heat, a difference of over loo degrees F. For this reason the incubating houses 
in the United States are often placed in cellars where the uniform conditions 
of temperature are more easily secured. There is no objection to this location 
provided proper care be taken to secure ventilation and the proper content of 
moisture in the atmosphere. In Great Britain the incubating houses are usu- 
ally placed above ground instead of in cellars. The mean range of temperature 
in an incubating room in Great Britain, from March 12, 1903, to March 30, 1904, 
was 10 degrees. The highest temperature registered was 70 degrees on the 
24th of June and the lowest 42 degrees in January. The humidity of the air 
was also quite constant, the lowest degree of humidity being 59 and the highest 
94. These data show a very even temperature in the room itself. Of course 
the temperature in the incubator is necessarily greater, being that already 
referred to, namely 102 degrees. 

Early Market. — One principal object in the raising of chicks is to force them 
to an earlv maturity in so far as size and palatability are concerned. The 
sooner the young broilers can be made ready for the market the more economy 
there is in their production. To this end they ought to receive a more abundant 
and specially prepared kind of food than if they were intended for ordinary 
farm purposes. In other words, the forcing process should be pushed as far 
as possible without interfering with the health and normal functions of the 
bird. Foods which are nutritious and stimulating and promote vigorous 



FRESHLY KILLED CHICKENS. 99 

growth should be employed. Birds prepared in this way for the market are 
extremely tender and palatable and bring the highest prices where their merits 
are recognized. 

Artificial Feeding. — Where chickens of greater age are prepared for the mar- 
ket they are subjected, during the last two or three weeks previous to sale, to a 
forcing process in order to produce more fat and make their flesh more palatable. 
To this end the chickens are fed from time to time mechanically by passing a 
tube into the craw and forcing the food therein. Fowls prepared in this 
way bring high prices in the market and the largest profits to the growers. 
It is a method, however, which is not used in the raising of the ordinary poultry 
found on the market. 

Preparing Chickens for the Market.— Chickens are sold in four different con- 
ditions in the markets of this country. First, they are offered alive. A great 
many purchasers prefer to get their poultry in this way because they can then be 
certain that it has not been long killed and kept in cold storage or preserved by 
means of chemicals. It is a very common custom for consumers to have their 
own chicken coops and buy a number of birds at a time and fatten them 
particularly for their own use. Under the present system of law this method is 
highly to be commended as a certain way of knowing the age of the poultry 
consumed. With proper municipal and state regulations of the markets it 
would not be necessary for the consumer to go to this trouble since when rigid 
inspection and certification are established, the age of the chicken offered on 
the market can be easily ascertained. Until such time comes, however, on 
the part of the consumer, the desirability of securing chickens alive cannot be 
denied. 

Freshly Killed Chickens. — Chickens which have been killed within twenty- 
four or forty-eight hours and properly kept may be regarded as freshly killed. 
There is a very wide-spread opinion, and probably founded on reliable ex- 
periments, that fowls are better if they are kept some time after slaughter, pro- 
vided they are kept in a proper way. In the winter time it is customary, es- 
pecially in Europe, to hang the fowl for a week or ten days exposed to the or- 
dinary temperature, before consumption. This, of course, is a practice which 
could not be indulged in in warm weather. Fowls, however, can be hung in cold 
storage even in the summer time and with the same advantage which accrues 
by hanging them in ordinary temperature in the winter time. Just how long 
fowls should be kept after slaughter in this way in order to secure a maximum 
degree of palatability has not been scientifically determined. There is evidently 
a limit beyond which the keeping of slaughtered fowls should not be indulged 
in. If a low and even temperature could be secured it may be certain that the 
hanging of the fowl for a week or ten days is not too long. The temperature, 
however, should not be much above the freezing point. 

Freshly killed chickens are offered in two forms, namely, drawn and un- 



lOO POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 

drawn. The proper method of keeping a slaughtered chicken has been the 
subject of very Hvely discussions. There are many who are advocates of the 
exposure of the chicken in the undrawn state asserting that in this condition 
it is less exposed to infection and keeps better during ihe necessary time elapsing 
between slaughter and consumption. This argument is advanced chiefly by 
dealers. On the other hand the consumer, as a rule, is in favor of having the 
chicken drawn before it is exposed for sale, that is, as soon as it is slaughtered. 
There is perhaps much to be said on both sides of this question. If, however, 
chickens are to be secured by the consumer within forty-eight hours after 
slaughter there can be no very great danger of infection by having them 
undrawn. The subject is one of sufificient importance to warrant an extended 
scientific investigation and upon this investigation the municipal and state 
regulations for the sale of poultry can be based. It is not wise in such cases to 
be swayed solely by prejudice or sentiment but rather by the facts which can 
be ascertained by unbiased scientific investigation. Because a chicken weighs 
more undrawn is probably one of the reasons why dealers prefer them in this 
state. It may be said, too, that the walls of the intestines are so impenetrable 
that there is no danger of bacterial contamination. But the keeping of 
chickens with the intestinal contents undisturbed does not appeal to the im- 
agination of the consumer any more than would the freezing of the carcass of 
a beef or hog with the viscera remaining in it. The most recent investigations^ 
however, have shown that properly packed, undrawn poultry can be kept from 
six to nine months without danger of intestinal contamination. If poultry 
are drawn before storage it is highly important to a^•oid all contamination of 
the cut surfaces. Experiments have shown the advisability of packing drawn 
poultry in tin cartons, carefully closed. Fowls thus treated preserve to a 
remarkable degree their freshness and palatability. In any case the consumer 
should be allowed the choice in the matter which, at the present time, is not 
the case in many parts of this country where only undrawn poultry is exposed 
for sale. 

Poultry in Cold Storage. — Whenever a fowl is kept for a longer period than 
the week or ten days abo\'e referred to for the purpose of improving its flavor 
and palatability it is necessary that it be placed in cold storage. This method 
of keeping poultry or other foods is wholly unobjectionable unless carried to 
excess. Poultry is a food product which under the present scientific methods 
of production can be furnished in a fresh state all the year. The necessity for 
cold storage, therefore, is not so apparent in this case as in that of fruit and 
other perishable foods. It appears then that cold storage should onl}- be ex- 
tended to that limit necessary to secure its delivery to the consumer. There can 
scarcely be any excuse for the placing of poultry in cold storage at certain 
seasons of the year when they are slightly less in price by reason of the abundant 
production than at other seasons. The methods of producing poultry are such 



POULTRY IN COLD STORAGE. lOl 

at the present time that this excess in supply can easily be avoided on the part 
of the producer and thus maintain an even jjrice and an even supply the year 
round. The producer as well as the consumer is benefited by such a condition. 
The necessity, often, for cold storage in the limited sense above referred to is 
acknowledged by all and a reasonable degree of time in cold storage cannot be 
regarded as in any way measurably harmful with reference to the character 
of the product. It is probable that as long as four or six months may be re- 
garded as a justifiable limit for securing a proper market for poultry in cold 
storage though the exact length of time in which it may be left in cold storage will 
be determined only by careful scientific investigation. There seems to be no 
necessity whatever for carr}'-ing fowls for a longer period and especially, as has 
been known, for a year or even two years. The deterioration, even if the tem- 
perature is far below the freezing point, is very marked during these long periods 
of time and actual danger may accrue to the consumer in the possible develop- 
ment of poisonous degradation products in the flesh. Municipal, state, and 
national regulations should be of a character to inform the consumer of the 
exact length of time which the poultry he proposes to purchase has been in cold 
storage. This is the least which the consumer has the right to know and is a 
right which the producer and packer should concede without discussion. The 
unwillingness which has been manifested on the part of dealers in poultry to 
make public the length of time which it has been in cold storage is of itself a 
suspicious condition. The argument is constantly heard that the length of time 
poultry has been in cold storage does not impair its palatability or wholesome- 
ness. If this be true then a statement of the length of time cannot in any way 
injure the market. But to this reply is made to the eflfect that if the consumer is 
told the fowl has been in cold storage a certain length of time he will not purchase 
it. To this the evident answer is, — why should you deceive the consumer by 
selling him an article which if he knew its character he would not buy? It is 
evident that such deception is nothing more nor less than obtaining money under 
false pretenses. The remedy for the evil of cold storage is the label which will 
indicate the length of time which has elapsed since the slaughter of the fowl. 

There is, perhaps, no greater blessing which has been conferred upon man- 
kind during the last quarter of a century than the development of cold storage 
methods of preserving food. The continued prosperity and benefits of this 
business depend upon a thorough study of the conditions attendant thereon 
and the elimination of any evil which ma\- be incident thereto. \\' hen this is 
accomplished the absolute confidence which the consumer will have in cold 
storage will be such that the magnitude of the business will be immensely in- 
creased. Thus the interests of the consumer and the dealer are one and they 
should work together to promote their common good. 

Composition oj the White Meat oj a Chicken. — The meat of a chicken, care- 
fully prepared in the laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, was analyzed by 



I02 POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 

separation into the white and dark portions. The composition of the two 
meats is as follows : 

Water tn Fat- Meat 

Water. free Substance. Fat. Protein. Bases. 

Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. 

W-Tiite meat,... 61-38 7S-o8 18.25 17.06 .37 

Dark meat, 59-48 78.44 24.16 i5-94 1-03 

The above data show that there is a notable difference in the composition 
of the Avhite and the dark meat. The white meat has much less fat and a 
correspondingly larger quantity of protein. The quantity of water in the two 
classes of meat is not very different although there is a slightly less quantity 
in the dark meat. The dark meat has a much larger proportion of meat bases 
but as these bases are often considered of little value and sometimes degenerate 
into poisonous constituents it is seen from this point of view that the white 
meat is to be preferred to the dark meat. 

Preserved Chicken. — Practically the only methods of preserving chickens are 
the canning processes which have already been described and cold storage. 
Chickens may be canned in the same way as has been described for beef and in 
that way may be kept for a certain length of time without notable deterioration. 
The pickling of chicken is not very extensively practiced nor is it cured in the or- 
dinary sense of the word, that is, by the addition of salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, 
and wood smoke. Chicken may also be put up in the form of potted chicken, 
which has already been described. Practically the only methods which are 
in vogue and which can be commended for preserving chicken are sterilizing 
or canning and cold storage. These methods, when not unduly prolonged, 
are open to no reasonable objection. The preserving of chickens with spices 
and condiments may also, perhaps, be considered as desirable provided no 
harmful chemical preservatives are employed. The temptation, however, 
to employ such preservatives is so great as not to be always resisted. 

Adulteration oj Potted Chicken and Turkey. — Perhaps there is no other form 

of potted meat,\vith the possible exception of pate de foie gras, where such an 

opulent field for sophistication is found as in the case of potted chicken and 

turkey. The average composition of ten samples of alleged potted chicken and 

turkey, found upon the market, is shown in the following table: 

Water, 58.52 percent 

Water in fat-free substance, 71-24 

Fat, 1 7.98 

Protein, 19.12 

Meat bases, 96 

Glycogen, 26 

Total ash, 2.67 

Of which sodium chlorid, 1.05 

All but one of the ten samples contained starch but not in very considerable 
quantities, the largest amount being 4.13 percent. 

None of the samples contained saltpeter. This is an interesting point be- 
cause of the claim of the packers that saltpeter is used solely for preservation 



CAPONS. 103 

purposes. When a meat is expected to be of a white color no saUpeter is found 
while, on the contrary, where the meat is of a red character it is frequently- 
found. Tin was present in four samples, doubtless due to some contamination 
with the solder or by corrosion of the tin can itself. Where tin is present due 
to the corrosion of the can itself it is always in greater abundance in the old 
than in the newly canned sam])le. It is quite certain that the contents of these 
packages were not made-up of chicken and turkey exclusively. The character- 
istic odor and taste of smoked meats which are found in these packages would 
indicate that they are used to give flavor and aroma to the mixture. The 
addition of flavoring materials of this kind, or "force" meats as they are some- 
times called, is not objectionable from any sanitary or dietetic point of view. 
It is, however, an offense against an ethical principle which must be closely 
followed in a case of this kind if the doors of fraud and adulteration are not to 
be left wide open. This principle is that no false idea by inference, omission 
or otherwise, should be conveyed to the consumer by the label. Some form 
of expression for potted meat should be used in wliich the label gives the prin- 
cipal or dominant meat in the mixture, accompanied by the statement that it is 
a mixture with other meats also named, spiced and flavored. Under the present 
condition of affairs a manufacturer who really wishes to put into potted form 
chicken and turkey with only spices and condiments has to undergo an unfair 
competition with another manufacturer who uses the same label and reduces 
the quantity of expensive meat to a minimum or may possibly leave it out al- 
together. Under the new food law this unfair competition will be prevented. 

Adulteration 0} Chicken. — The flesh of chicken is not subjected to any very 
extensive adulterations. It has been claimed that preservatives are applied 
externally to fresh fowls but the evidence on this point is not very conclusive. 
There is, perhaps, little doubt that other methods have been practiced but 
probably without any very great vogue. The use of chemical preservatives in 
potted chicken is also reprehensible. In general it may be said that there is no 
very extensive adulteration of chicken meat. The princii^al objection to the 
commerce in preserved chicken meat is the use of old chickens, the unlimited 
cold storage, the failure to draw at time of slaughter, and exposure in the mar- 
ket in an unsanitary condition and for an indefinite time. Cheaj)er meats are 
sometimes substituted for the genuine article in potted chicken. Turkey and 
pork are said to be used in chicken salad. 

Capons. — The castration of the male bird produces the capon, the flesh of 
which is very highly valued as being superior to that of the male or female 
chicken. Capons are much more extensivelv used in Europe than in the United 
States but are gradually coming into favor in this country. It is difficult to 
describe the difference between the taste of the flesh of the capon and the 
rooster and hen. A greater degree of tenderness and a more delicate taste 
characterize the flesh of the capon. In France, especiall}-, the production of 



I04 POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 

capons has been carried to its highest perfection. Caponizing should be prac- 
ticed at an early date in the life of the young bird. In fact, as soon as the 
distinction in sex is well marked in the young chicken the removal of the 
testes should take place. The young fowl is laid upon its left side and the skin 
is exposed b\' pulling back the feathers and trimming them off at the proper 
place until the space between the first and second ribs of the right side is laid 
bare. An incision is then carefully made and the testes removed by instru- 
ments particularly adapted for that purpose. The operation should be done 
by an expert although theoretically it appears easy of accomplishment. In 
practice, however, it requires an expert to avoid any injury to the bird and to 
insure a speedy recovery. When done in the proper way, apparently no great 
inconvenience attends the operation. There is little blood shed and usually no 
inflammation when the proper antiseptic measures are provided. 

Caponizing develops a bird that is readily fattened and easily prepared for 
the market and highly prized. The caponized bird often develops brooding 
instincts and when eggs are hatched by the heat of the bird the capon makes 
a better brooder than the hen because of the greater spread of the wings and 
the larger number of eggs that can be covered in the operation. The larger 
breeds of birds make the best capons such as the brahmas and plymouth rocks. 
The capons are fattened and prepared for the market as in the case of other 
birds. When skimmed milk is made a large portion of the diet the flesh is con- 
sidered to be of greater value. The best age for marketing a capon is at about 
twelve months. At that time they have attained their full size and their maxi- 
mum degree of excellence as a food bird. The feeding should be done upon 
the principles already described, namely, to keep the birds growing in the 
usual way until about three or four weeks before the market when the extra 
food is given in as large quantities as possible for quick fattening. In Europe 
this extra food is usually given mechanically under the forced system though 
in this country the mechanical method of feeding capons has not generally 
been introduced. 

Capons bring a higher price upon the market than the other varieties of 
chicken, sometimes the difference being as much as four or five cents a pound. 
For this reason the growth of capons becomes more profitable to the farmer 
than that of the ordinary chicken. 

Duck (Anas boschas). — The domesticated duck is used very largely for food 
in all parts of the world. Its flavor is not so highly prized as that of the wild 
duck but it is an excellent article of diet. The production of ducks is con- 
ducted in the same manner as the production of poultry in general. They 
are still chiefly grown upon the farm without any special care but the best 
results are obtained by the systematic growth of ducks under scientific 
conditions in poultr}- houses. The duck is not so extensively used for food 
as the turkey and chicken but perhaps in this country much more extensively 



COMPOSITION' OF THE FLESH OF DUCKS. 



105 



than the goose. The price of the wild duck, however, is still sufficiently low to 
limit to a certain extent the production oi the domesticated article. 

Varieties of Ducks. — There are many \arieties of ducks cultivated for the 
market. The Pekin is perhaps the most abundant of all. It is creamy white 
in color, has a long and graceful body and has been particularly bred for the 
market, ^^'hen ready for the market the average weight of the drake is about 
eight pounds and the duck seven. The Aylesbury is also a favorite variet\'. 
It is said to be somewhat whiter than the Pekin in color. It is specially 
valued in England as a market duck. It is somewhat larger than the Pekin. 
Other varieties of ducks are the Rover, the Cayuga, the Gray and White Call, 
the East Indian, the Crested White, the colored and w^hite Muscovy, and the 
Indian runner. The latter is a very small duck, being only about one-half the size 
of the Pekin. Usually the ducks on the market are not designated by any 
particular variety and, in fact, most consumers are not sufficiently acquainted 
with the different varieties of duck to be able to ask for any particular one. 
The mallard, canvas-back, and teal are common varieties of the wild duck. 

Composition of the Flesh of Ducks. — The flesh of two \-arieties of ducks, 
namely the Pekin duck and the Mallard duck, was carefully separated in the 
Bureau of Chemistry and subjected to analysis. The composition of the meat 
of these two ducks is shown in the following table: 

Water in Fat- Meat 

Water. free Substance. Fat. Protein. Bases. 

Pekin duck, 47.46 78.20 39.31 13.37 -43 

Mallard duck, 69.06 75-98 7. 11 iQ—S -65 

The above data show a striking difference between these two varieties of 
ducks. The Pekin duck has a large excess of fat while the Mallard duck, 
which is a wild duck and evidently not very fat, has a small percentage of fat 
and a large percentage of protein. It is evident that the flesh of wild fowl 
would not, except at a certain season of the year, approach that of domesticated 
fowls in the percentage of fat which it contains. 

Goose (Anser anser). — The goose is not so commonly used as a food ])rod- 
uct in this country as in Europe, — the turkey to some extent has taken its 
place. The remarks which are applicable to the production of chickens are 
also applicable to the production of geese. The}-, perhaps, are grown more 
extensively in the old-fashioned way in this country than chickens or turkeys 
at the present time since they are used chiefly for the feathers which they 
produce and not for food. Goose is also considered i\ winter dish both in 
this country and in Europe. It is customary in Europe that the goo.se be 
hung even for a longer period before consumption than the chicken. Its 
flesh is made more tender and more palatable by this preliminary exposure. 
From one to two w-eeks is not considered too long a time in the winter for 
hanging in the old country. The remarks relative to cold storage of turkey 
and chicken apply also to the goose. The goose is, perhaps, the most easily 



Io6 POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 

artificially fattened of any other poultry birds. This is especially true in 
those regions where fatty goose livers are so highly prized in the manufacture 
of pate de joie gras. By long-continued artificial feeding the goose is made 
excessively fat and the liver especially is changed in its composition by this 
treatment so as to make it peculiarly suitable for the production of this delicacy. 

Varieties oj Geese. — The varieties of geese upon the market comprise the 
following leading breeds. The Toulouse is perhaps the most extensively 
raised. It is highly prized on account of its hardihood, its size and 
the general appearance of its body. It is of a gray to white color and 
the wings are a deeper gray or brown. The legs are usually of a deep orange. 
When ready for the market the average weight of the gander is 20 pounds and 
the goose 18. Of the other common varieties there are the Embden, the African, 
the brown and white Chinese, the white or Canada, and the Egyptian. The 
latter is a small goose only weighing about half as much as the Toulouse when 
ready for the market. The wild goose is highly esteemed as a game bird. 

Feeding 0} Young Geese for the Market. — The feeding of geese for the market 
begins as soon as the hatching is complete. The first meal of the young 
chicks consists of oat meal, middlings, finely chopped dandelions, lettuce or 
some similar green stuff, and milk. The goslings during the first week are kept 
indoors and should be fed four or five times a day on the mixture above named. 
After this they may go into a yard where there is plenty of grass, not over- 
grown, and they will thrive on this very well for a time without hand feeding. 
Not more than two feedings a day are necessary between the ages of one and 
six weeks where plenty of grass is at hand. During this time no better food 
than ground oats and skimmed milk can be used. During all this period great 
care is taken that the goslings are not subjected to any disease or to cold. They 
should be carefully housed in sanitary coops where the temperature does not 
sink too low and where they are protected from cold rains. After the goslings 
are eight weeks old they are usually able to take care of themselves in respect 
of food and need, perhaps, only one feeding a day. If these goslings are 
hatched in the early spring they may be ready for fattening for the Christmas 
market. The geese until shortly before the time for market are allowed to run 
free in a field, not too large, where there are ponds or troughs of water in abun- 
dance. In this way the frame of the goose will be suilficiently developed by the 
time the fattening period comes but there will have been no unusual expense 
in the production of the fowl until it is prepared for the market. The large 
frame is necessary in order that the goose may properly fatten. It usually 
requires about three weeks of artificial feeding to bring a goose into proper con- 
dition for the market. If the geese are for the Christmas market, about the 25th 
of November they are put up in sheds for fattening, for though they have been 
well fed during the summer and autumn they cannot be called fat geese until 
they have gone through a special course of nutrition. While they are confined 



TURKEY. 107 

for fattening geese require plenty of fresh air but very little light, and these con- 
ditions are procured by housing them in large airy sheds without windows. 
Before the fattening season these sheds are thoroughly cleaned and white- 
washed and the floor covered with cinders, ashes, and charcoal. This mixture 
is not only a good bedding but is also a good deodorizer, which is quite im- 
portant. Food troughs are arranged along the walls inside the shed and 
troughs for w^ater outside in such a way that the birds can reach the water 
but cannot get into it. Clean charcoal is to be put into the shed every day as it 
is constantly eaten by the geese and is valuable. The foods used are oat meal, 
boiled potatoes, linseed meal or other oil cakes, and plenty of milk, usually 
skimmed. The birds should have all of this that they can eat, for in the j^rocess 
we are now describing the artificial forcing of food into the craw is not jiracticed. 
In three weeks a good goose will increase four or five pounds in weight and this 
increase brings the goose up from an ordinary bird in good condition to one 
which is properly fed for the market. 

The killing of geese is practiced in practically the same manner as that which 
is described for slaughtering fowls. A goose is a bird of large vitality and 
dies hard as is the case with most fowls. The feathers should be taken off 
the body clean, as they are valuable for commercial purposes. Any pin feathers 
should be cut with a sharp knife so as to make the bird look as clean as possible 
when brought to the market. The carcass of the goose should not be packed 
to send to market until it is entirely cold and in this country, especially, where 
the distances are great, it is advisable to send it packed in ice or in a cold storage 
car. The average weight of a goose about nine months old thus prepared for 
the market is about fourteen pounds and the flesh is certain to be more palatable 
at this age when fattened in the manner above described. 

Domesticated Pigeon (Colmnba livia). — In the last few years the pro- 
duction of domesticated pigeons has been extensively practiced in this country, 
and especially the production of young pigeons which are known as squabs. 
They are rapidly taking the place of game birds at the hotels and restaurants 
of the country. The conditions of production, preparation, etc., are the 
same as those for the ordinary domesticated fowl. There are many varieties 
of the bird grown; some, as the carrier, for special purposes. The other prin- 
cipal varieties are barbs, fantails, jacobins, runts, trumpeters, tumblers, and 
turbits. 

Turkey (Melcagn's americana). — In general the statement which has been 
made regarding the production of fowls or chickens may be applied also to the 
production of turkeys. No further comment, therefore, is to be made under 
that head. The old-fashioned method of securing turkeys grown under 
natural conditions has, to a great extent, given way to the production of 
turkeys on a large scale and under scientific conditions. Turkeys, as a rule, 
are not eaten young, but practically full-grown. In this country the turkey 



Io8 POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 

is a dish which is particularly affected for festive occasions such as Thanks- 
giving and Christmas, though they are eaten largely throughout the whole 
year. The market, however, for turkeys is particularly a November and 
December market and the large introduction of turkeys in the market is so 
timed as to furnish them in proper condition for consumption during those 
two months. 

The methods of preparing turkeys for the market, keeping them in cold 
storage, of hanging them previous to consumption and exposing them drawn 
or undrawn for sale, are subject to the same remarks as have been made in the 
case of chickens. Turkeys are said to be more difficult to care for, both on the 
farm and in the professional poultry factory, than chickens. They are more 
subject to disease and more difficult to bring to maturity than chickens. 

Composition oj Meat of Turkey. — The flesh of the turkey was separated into 
two portions, the white and dark meats, and these were found to have the fol- 
lowing composition: 

Water in Fat- Meat 

Water. free Substance. Fat. Proteim. Bases. 

White meat, 55-5° 74-7° 25.71 18.31 1.31 

Dark meat, 54-13 75-76 27.76 16.75 i-i5 

A comparison of these two analyses show that there is little difference in the 
content of water in the white and dark meat. The dark meat, as in the case 
of chicken, has more fat and a correspondingly less amount of protein. The 
quantity of protein in the meat of turkey is about the same as that of chicken. 
The white meat of turkey differs from the white meat of chicken more in its 
content of meat bases than in any other way, except that the meat of turkey 
contains more fat, especially the white meat, than that of chicken. 

Composition of the Meat of Chicken, Turkey, Duck, and Goose. — The 
composition of the chicken, turkey, duck, goose, and pigeon as given by Konig 
is found in the following table: 

Water. Protein. Fat. Ash. 

Chicken (lean), 76.22 i9-72 1.42 1.37 

" (fat), 70.06 18.49 9.34 .91 

Young cock (fat), 70.03 23.32 3.15 i.oi 

Turkey, 65.60 24.70 8.50 ' 1.20 

Duck (wild), 70.80 22.65 3-1 1 ^■°9 

Goose (fat), 38.02 15.91 49-59 -48 

The above data show that with the exception of the goose the percentage of 
fat given in the flesh of the animals is very much less than that found in our own 
work. Even in the fat chicken only a little over 9 percent of fat was found. 
It is believed that the composition of these fowls as given by the work of the 
Bureau of Chemistry more nearly represents the average composition in this 
country than the data taken from Konig. 

Importance of Animal Food in the Growth of Poultry. — Many people 
suppose that poultry can live upon vegetables alone and this is probably true. 
Experience, however, shows that poultry does not thrive and fatten well on purely 



THE FORCED FATTENING OF POULTRY. IO9 

vegetable food. This fact was brought out very prominently in the experi- 
ments at the Cornell station where poultry of the same origin and character 
was fed two kinds of diet, one being partly of animal food and the other ])urely 
vegetable foods. The ration of the animal food consisted of Indian corn meal, 
wheat flour, ground oats, wheat bran, wheat middlings, pea meal, linseed meal, 
meat, and fresh bone. The vegetable ration consisted of pea meal, linseed 
meal, wheat bran, ground oats, Indian corn meal, wheat middlings, gluten meal, 
and skimmed milk. Before the experiment had been long under way it was 
noticed that the birds receiving the meat food were developing rapidly and 
evenly while those that received the purely vegetable diet were becoming thin 
and uneven in size. The authors of the bulletin say that it was sometimes al- 
most pitiful to see the long-necked, scrawny, vegetable-fed birds, with troughs 
full of abundant good, wholesome food before them, stand on the alert and 
scamper in hot haste after the unlucky grasshopper or fly which ventured into 
their pen, while the contented looking meat-fed ducks lay lazily in the sun 
and paid no attention to the buzzing bee or crawling beetle. The vegetable- 
fed birds literally starved to death, at least many of them, so that only twenty 
of the thirty-three with which the experiment was commenced were alive at 
the close of the fifteen weeks of feeding. 

The Forced Fattening of Poultry. — Allusion has already been made to 
the forced fattening of poultry secured by injecting food into the craw in larger 
quantities than would naturally be taken by the fowl if left to itself. There 
is much to be said both for and against this method of fattening. In favor of 
this method it may be stated that the birds fattened in this way are more highly 
prized by the connoisseur, are naturally fatter by reason of the enforced idleness 
of the birds during the fattening process, thus diminishing muscular activity, 
and more tender than the birds left at freedom and forced to secure their own 
food. From the point of view of the seller, also, the birds are heavier and the 
artificially fattened fowl usually brings a higher price, pound for pound, on 
the market. Against the method it is urged that it is barbarous, imposing 
upon the birds a diet far beyond normal capacity and thus tending to damage 
and injure the organs of the body charged with the assimilation of food and 
the excretion of the waste products. 

The above indictment is doubtless true is almost every respect. In explana- 
tion it may be said that the period of forcing food is always a short one, rarely 
extending beyond three weeks, and, therefore, any injury to the organs which 
might be induced is not of sufficient duration to establish any real form of dis- 
ease. In other words, the birds are slaughtered before any lesions of the organs 
are produced. The livers of the animals, especially geese, thus artificially fat- 
tened, take on an extra quantity of fat during this period but it cannot be said 
that they become really diseased. The fatty livers, as is well known, are used 
particularly in the manufacture of a mixed spiced meat known as pate de joie 
gras. 



no POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 

Upon the whole it is believed that no injury is done the bird by this process 
of feeding which could in any way be regarded as detrimental to the flesh as a 
food product. In regard to the apparent barbarity of the process little need 
be said. The slaughter of animals for human food in itself is a barbarous 
practice from one point of view but if this practice is justified, as it doubtless is, 
by the exigencies of human nutrition, the slight degree of force which is em- 
ployed in artificial fattening cannot be condemned. Moreover the artificial fat- 
tening of the fowl is of necessity a somewhat limited operation and confined to 
those establishments that are devoted exclusively to the production of high- 
grade and high-priced poultry for the market. The fattening is done by ex- 
perts and, in so far as the experience of feeding men in the same way is con- 
cerned, is not attended with any pain or discomfort other than that incident 
to a chronically full craw. 

Increase in Weight. — There is a larger increase in the weight of artificially 
fattened poultry over those fed in the ordinary way and allowed to run free 
than is usually supposed. It is stated by some authors that the average 
increase in weight of artificially fattened birds is as much as 35 percent. There 
is no secret connected with the method of artificial fattening as is sometimes 
supposed. There are perhaps proprietary methods for preparing foods for 
fattening purposes but there is no secret in the mechanism of the process. In 
fact the process is so simple that it might be easily taught in a general way so 
that the farm hand would become an expert in its use and the farmer's poultry 
instead of being sent to market in a half-emaciated condition might be offered to 
the public in the best possible shape. Poultry running at large use up a large 
part of the value of their food in the heat and energy developed in the ordinary 
search for food. When confined and fed artificially this excess of heat and 
energy is naturally stored as fat. 

Experience has shown that the artificial feeding must be a limited one and the 
bird must be sent to market as soon as it has reached its maximum of perfection 
under the process. Experience has also shown that in the artificial feeding it is 
best to have each bird in a small compartment to itself with the cage so ar- 
ranged that the bird can put its head through a slat in front and thus receive 
the food from the machine without disturbing any of its neighbors. That- 
the birds are perfectly willing to take the food in this way is evidenced by the 
fact that they voluntarily put their heads through the apertures to receive their 
food. Each individual coop must be kept scrupulously clean and disinfected 
and the air in the room kept perfectly fresh and sweet. Lime should be used 
freely in all parts of the coop house in the form of whitewash or sprinkled 
about the floor or upon the floors of the coops. Gypsum or ordinary land 
plaster is also highly prized as another form of lime which is found to be very 
valuable. The whitewash must be freely indulged in and at frequent intervals. 

There are various forms of fattening food used in this country. Indian 



SLAUGHTERING FOWLS FOR THE MARKET. Ill 

corn meal forms an important part. The presence of certain animal products 
must not be neglected in the food as it has been shown that fowls thrive better 
when given, in their food, a certain amount of animal matter, both of flesh and 
finely ground bone. The fattening food must be in the form of a finely ground 
paste of the proper consistency to be handled well in the mn chine. It is a 
universal practice which custom has shown to be necessary to mi.x with the 
food a certain r^uantity of finely pulverized charcoal, usually about three pounds 
of the charcoal to 97 pounds of food. Some feeders prefer to mi.x the paste 
about twenty-four hours before it is administered, believing that the slight 
fermentation thus produced is beneficial. 

The Cramming Machine. — Various forms of machines are employed for in- 
troducing the food into the craw. The tube carrying the food is introduced 
into the esophagus of the bird in a manner to avoid any pain and the apparatus 
is so adjusted that with a single movement of the machine, usually operated by 
the foot, the proper amount of food is injected. The birds should be arranged 
according to size so that all of a certain size may have e.xactly the same 
quantity of food administered. The operator would thus be saved the 
difficulty of guessing the different sizes. The arrangement of the coops 
and the kind of the cramming machine vary greatly. In the beginning 
of artificial feeding the birds should not be pushed to their full capacity. 
An increasing quantity of food should be given up to the end of the first 
week or ten days before the full maximum dose is administered. In general 
it is found best to take the bird out of the coop for feeding, holding it under the 
arm so that the neck can be made perfectly straight and gently inserting the 
flexible tube which carries the food and thus with the single movement of a 
lever, filling the craw. The use of the machine, however, is found to be ad- 
vantageous from a point of economy although it is claimed that the cramming of 
birds by means of a funnel has been found very efficacious. With a good 
machine an expert operator can feed about 250 birds in an hour. An important 
point in the fattening is that the food should be given regularly. 

Slaughtering Fowls for the Market. — It is important that a uniform 
and proper method be used for killing fowls intended for the market. There 
, are two methods in common vogue, namely, by bleeding and by dislocation 
of the neck. The method of killing is important in order that the proper method 
of dressing for the market may be secured. A fowl which is offered for sale 
ought to be attractively dressed and any brutal or defacing method of slaughter 
makes it impossible afterwards to render the fowl attractive to the customer. 

In killing by the dislocation of the neck the operator takes the bird by the 
thigh and top of the wing in the left hand and the head in the right and then 
draws it steadily until dislocation takes place. The skin remains unbroken 
and no bruised effect is produced but all the blood in the body drains into the 
neck and remains there. This method is one especially practiced in England 



112 POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 

(Journal, Board of Agriculture, 1904-5, page 306). Where the bird is very large,, 
as is the case with turkeys, it may require the full strength of a man in order to 
produce the dislocation in the manner mentioned. In this case it is often neces- 
sary to first hang the bird up by the leg to secure the best results. 

In killing a fowl by bleeding it is strung up by the legs with its head hanging 
downward. The operator then gives it a sharp blow with a stick on the back 
of the head and when he has stunned it by this means he inserts a sharp knife 
into the roof of the mouth, penetrating the brain. He also severs the large 
artery of the throat by rotating the knife and the bird rapidly bleeds to death. 
This method of killing, it is seen, is not a very humane one. If, for instance, 
the sensation of the bird is not destroyed by the first blow the other process 
must be needlessly painful. This process, simplified somewhat by omitting 
the hanging, is the one commonly followed by professionals in this country. 
In England turkeys which are prepared for the market are plucked but not 
drawn. One of the newest methods of plucking is known as the Devonshire 
style and consists in stripping the feathers clean off the breast and thighs but 
leaving the neck, back and wings covered. The fowls are then tied around 
the legs with a strong cord in such a manner as to show the plumpness of the 
breast prominently. 

The methods of preparation of the fowls depend largely on the demands of 
the market to which they are going. Some require the fowls to be clean 
plucked and others prefer some of the feathers left on. 

Eggs. — Eggs are a common article of diet throughout the world. The eggs 
of domesticated fowls are those which are principally used for food, though the 
eggs of wild fowls, and birds and reptiles are also edible but on account of the 
difficulty of getting them and their rarity are not to be considered as a com- 
mercial article. The chief sources of supply are the eggs of chickens, ducks, and 
geese. Chicken eggs are by far the most important, duck eggs the next im- 
portant, and goose eggs the least important. The eggs of fish also constitute 
an article of food of considerable value and are extensively used. For instance 
the fresh eggs of shad are used in large quantities during the whole of the shad 
season and are often kept in cold storage for use at other times. The eggs of 
sturgeon are used extensively in the fresh state and when pickled as caviar are 
highly esteemed throughout the world. These two kinds of eggs are probably 
the most important of fish eggs used for food purposes. Chicken eggs vary 
greatly in size according to the age and variety of the fowl. The average 
weight of chicken eggs is 680 grams per dozen. They vary also in color from 
pure white to a brownish yellow. Duck eggs are larger and also variegated 
in color. The average weight of duck eggs is 847.2 grams per dozen. Goose 
eggs are the largest of the three varieties, varying also in color. They weigh on 
an average 2284.8 grams per dozen. Eggs also vary greatly in shape, being 
generally ovoid, but some being much more spherical than others according 
to the species of the fowl and variety. The number of eggs which a chicken 



PRESKRVATION OF EGGS. II 



will lay varies greatly. Attempts have been made, with great success, at ex- 
periment stations, to develop chickens with high laying powers. A hen which 
will produce over 200 eggs a year is regarded as a high-grade fowl for egg- 
producing purposes. Eggs are produced more abundantly during the early 
spring and summer than during the winter months. One of the purposes of 
scientific egg producing is the development of fowls that will produce eggs more 
evenly throughout the whole year, thus avoiding the very great depression in the 
price of eggs in the spring and the excessively high price of eggs in the winter. 
Composition oj Eggs. — A large number of eggs have been analyzed in all 
quarters of the world and found to vary but little in composition in different 
localities, and very little also in regard to the variety of the fowl. The egg 
consists essentially of two portions, — an external highly albuminous portion 
known as the white and an internal colored portion, yellow or reddish in tint, 
known as the yolk. The white of an egg is composed almost entirely of albumin 
partially dissolved in water. The yolk of the egg is composed of albumin, fat, 
and a phosphorus-bearing material of high nutritive value known as lecithin. 
The yolk of an egg is a much richer food product than the white, containing in 
addition to the nitrogeneous element the fat and mineral bodies necessary to 
nutrition. Both the white and yolk of an egg are composed principally of water 
as will be seen by the following analytical data: 

Water. Protein. Fat. Ash. Calorifs. 

Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Per pound. 

Hen, 73.7 13.4 10.5 i.o 

T>nck, 70.5 13.3 14.5 1.0 985 

Goose, 69.5 13.8 14.4 1.0 9S5 

Turkey, 73.3 13.4 11.2 0.9 850 

Fresh eggs have a specific gravity of 1.089. Kept a week at 75° F. this, 
number falls to 1.067. Strictly fresh eggs will sink in a 10 percent salt 
solution at 75° F. 

Preservation of Eggs. — Freshly laid eggs may be preserved for several days 
without any notable deterioration by keeping in a cool place. The temperature 
of preservation should be as near the freezing point as can be secured. The 
vital processes are continually going on in a fresh egg and hence there is a 
development of a certain degree of heat due to these activities. For this 
reason eggs can be placed in an atmosphere below the freezing point of water 
without being frozen. An additional reason for this is found in the fact that 
the water which is present in eggs holds the albumin and other bodies in solution 
and the freezing point of a solution is always lower than that of the solvent alone. 
For domestic purposes where refrigerating establishments are not available the 
fresh eggs should be kept in a cool dark place where the temperature is not 
allowed to go above 50 or 60 degrees. At a higher temperature than this 
fresh eggs lose their freshness in a remarkably short time. The porous nature 
of the shell is a condition which favors the deterioration of the egg by the ad- 
mission of air and microbes into the substance of the egg it.self. 
9 



114 POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 

The preservation of eggs is, therefore, materially assisted by coating the egg 
artificially with a varnish or film of some kind which renders the egg impervious 
to air and water. One of the cheapest, simplest, and best of these coatings, as 
has already been noted, is soluble glass. This is produced by dissolving the 
chemical svibstance known as silicate of soda in water, and dipping the egg 
into the solution, removing and allowing to dry. The silicate of soda which is 
thus left in a thin film over the surface of the egg penetrates and stops the pores 
and renders the egg shell practically impervious both to air and water. This 
material has the property of becoming totally insoluble in water when it has 
once been dried so that even if the egg is afterwards subjected to rain or water 
in any form the film is not removed. Many other methods of coating eggs 
have been employed and are dependent upon the same principle but are per- 
haps not so effectual and simple as the inexpensive method above described. 

Cold Storage. — Eggs either with or without the coating of the surface, 
usually without, may be kept for a considerable length of time without deterior- 
ation in cold storage. In this case it is advisable to reduce the temperature to 
the lowest possible point to retain the semi-fresh condition of the contents. 
Water freezes at 32 degrees, but for the reasons above mentioned the tempera- 
ture at which the egg is stored may be reduced notably below 32 degrees 
without danger of solidifying. The eggs kept in cold storage gradually ac- 
quire a taste and aroma which are quite different from the fresh article and the 
period of preservation should never be prolonged, probably a month or six 
weeks is the extreme limit for keeping eggs which can still be regarded as having 
the qualities of the fresh article. In practice, eggs are kept often a very much 
longer time since the principal object of cold storage is to lay in a supply in the 
spring and summer when they are abundant and keep them over until the next 
winter. The average age of cold storage eggs is probably more than six months. 
At this time the eggs have acquired a distinctly unpleasant odor and flavor 
which enables even one who is not an expert to distinguish between them and 
the fresh article. Such eggs should not be allowed on the market except under 
their proper designation so that the purchaser may know the character of 
the product he is getting. There is a determined opposition on the part of those 
dealing in cold storage eggs against such marking, an opposition which can 
only be explained by the fact that the amount of deterioration is fully as great 
as specified. If cold storage eggs have not been kept long enough to develop 
any of the objectionable conditions mentioned above and are inferior only in 
respect of taste and aroma there seems to be no just reason why they should be 
forbidden sale. They usually bring a lower price than fresh eggs produced at 
the time of sale and thus are brought more readily within the means of those 
who are less able to pay the higher prices. Cold storage eggs are extensively 
used for baking purposes and in this condition escape the detection of the con- 
sumer. This appears, however, to be no just reason Tor their use without notice. 



BROKEN AND DRIED EGGS. I15 

Broken Eggs. — An extensive industry has been practiced for many years in 
the product known as broken eggs. In the preparation of broken eggs at 
times of great abundance, the eggs are collected and broken and then mixed 
together in containers of various sizes, often as large as barrels, and preserved 
by the admixture of borax. From two to four pounds of borax are usually 
employed per loo pounds of broken eggs. In this condition the eggs are kept 
from the time of great abundance until the time of higher prices, namely, from six 
to eight months, and then sent into commerce. The use of broken eggs of 
this kind for edible purposes is totally indefensible. While borax prevents the 
development of bacteria it does not entirely inhibit enzymic action and hence 
that subtle change of nitrogenous matter which produces poisonous bodies 
may go on in the presence of borax while apparently the egg itself remains un- 
decomposed. Other preserving agents have been used in place of borax for 
these products, but all are open to similar objections. Broken eggs are also 
preserved by placing in cans and freezing. There is no objection to this 
practice if the eggs are fresh and are broken in such a manner as to prevent 
infection by contact with the exterior of the shells or otherwise. Stale, spotted, 
broken or otherwise unmarketable eggs should never be used. Broken eggs 
are used chiefly by bakers in large cities. 

Dried Eggs. — The rapid drying of fresh eggs is perhaps an unobjectionable 
method of preservation. The drying may take place by spreading the eggs 
in a thin film on a dry surface, which is the usual method, or by forcing the egg 
product through small orifices under a high pressure into a drying chamber so 
adjusted as to temperature and size as to secure the desiccation of the minute 
particles of egg spray before they fall to the bottom. This method is perhaps the 
best which has yet been developed in the desiccation of such products. The 
egg powder thus formed is almost devoid of moisture and when properly collected 
and stored out of contact with the air, may be kept for a time without de- 
terioration. Dry egg products such as have been described made from fresh 
eggs, may be considered unobjectionable for a reasonable length of time. 
Unfortunately dried products are sometimes made from decayed eggs. The 
same precautions are to be observed in the preparation of dried eggs as are out- 
lined above for the broken product. 

Egg Substitutes. — Many products have been put upon the market of a yellow 
color and containing protein under the guise of eggs. There is a number of so- 
called egg powders offered for making cakes, etc., which contain no egg at all. 
They are composed of other forms of protein matter, generally casein from 
milk, and colored to resemble the egg in tint. Starchy substances are also 
colored and sold as egg powder. These substances may be regarded as 
adulterations when sold under the name or in the guise of an egg product. 
There are no other adulterations of eggs of any consequence practiced except 
the simulation of egg material by such products as those just mentioned. 



Il6 POULTRY AND GAME BIRDS. 

Poisonous Principles in Eggs. — While fresh eggs for most people form a food 
product entirely devoid of danger, nutritious and easily digestible, eggs may 
easily become injurious and even poisonous. According to experiments made 
by Bouchard (Scientific American, August ii, 1896, page 95), even fresh eggs, 
unless the sanitary conditions in which the fowls live are well cared for, may 
become very poisonous. The fowl producing eggs, as a rule, is not a cleanly 
animal, and this is especially true of the duck. Thus injurious organic material 
rich in microbes may contaminate the egg and the microbes may penetrate the 
shell thus rendering the egg unsuitable for consumption. Eggs contaminated 
in this way have given evidence of toxic phenonema even in a fresh state. Ex- 
periments have shown too that the food material of eggs if directly injected into 
the blood of an animal produces toxic effects whereas if injected into the stom- 
ach no unfavorable effects are produced. Egg albumin, that is, the albumin of 
the white of the egg, when fed in considerable quantities to animals partially 
escapes digestion and thus becomes a source of irritation and even of poisoning. 
There are many people who are remarkably sensitive to the influence of eggs 
and those who possess this idiosyncrasy are injured even by eggs which are 
perfectly harmless to other people. A large number of species of injurious 
microbes which infect eggs have been identified. These even are found in 
fresh eggs in the unsanitary conditions above mentioned. Eggs kept for a 
long while in cold storage or decayed in any way are extremely injurious. 
Fortunately decayed eggs are self protecting since they can only be eaten by 
accident. If, however, decayed eggs be eaten in diluted form by mixing with 
other foods they may be eaten without their characteristic odor or taste being 
known and thus great injury arises. It is advised in all cases where eggs are 
to be kept for some time even in cold storage to varnish them with some sub- 
stance impenetrable to air. For this purpose, as has already been mentioned, 
soluble glass, which is chemically a silicate of soda, has been found extremely 
effective. Any of the varnishes which make the shell of an egg air tight tends 
to restrain the activities of bacterial life since the bacteria cannot live without 
air. The officials who inspect food should direct special care to the storing 
of eggs in order that no damage may result from keeping them too long in cold 
storage or otherwise. It must not be understood that poisoning by eggs is of 
common occurrence. In fact it is very rare. The fact that the egg itself, 
which is such a common article of diet, may be unsanitary and improperly 
kept is a matter of great concern to the consumer. 

Parasites in Eggs. — The egg also when produced in unsanitary conditions 
may become infected with parasites. Many of these are apparently harmless, 
but some are injurious and even dangerous. The mere fact that parasites may 
exist in eggs is of itself a sufficient reason for the consumer to insist that the 
eggs he eats, like the milk he drinks, shall be free from all infections due solely 
to carelessness in production. 



PART III. 

FISH FOODS. 



FISH. 

Fish furnish a very important and useful part of the animal food of 
man. Both the fish growing in fresh water and in salt water are generally 
edible. Usually the smaller-sized fish are considered more palatable, but this 
is not universally the case. The large-sized fish are apt to be coarse, and 
have a less desirable flavor than those of smaller size. The size of the fish 
usually depends upon the magnitude of the body of water in which the species 
grow, the largest bemg in the lakes and oceans, the medium-size in rivers, 
and the smallest in brooks. Fish are known chiefly by their common names, 
and these names are different for the same species of fish in different parts 
of the country. For instance, the term trout covers a multitude of species, 
and, likewise, under the term sardine a large number of different species or 
varieties of fish are considered. There is also a large number of varieties 
known as salmon, perch, bass, etc. 

In the following table are given the common and the scientific names of 
the principal food fishes used in the United States (see Report of U. S. Com- 
mission of Fish and Fisheries, 1888, pages 679-868) : 

Acipenseridce : 

Acipenser sturio oxyrliynchns, Sturgeon. 
Catostomida : 

Moxostoma vclaluiu, Small-mouthed red-horse. 
ClupeidcB : 

Cliipea harengiis, Herring. 
pilchardus, Sardine. 
vernaUs, Alewife. 
sapidissima, Shad. 
Salmonid(c : 

Osmeriis nwrdax, Smelt. 
Coregonus dupeiformis, Whitefish. 

sp., tullibee or artedi, Ciscoe. 
Oncorhynchiis chouicha, California salmon. 
Salmo salar, Salmon. 

subsp. sebago, Land-locked salmon. 
Salvelinus namayciish, Lake trout. 
jontinalis, Brook trout. 

1T7 



Il8 FISH FOODS. 

EsocidcB : 

Esox lucius, Pike. 

reticiilatiis, Pickerel. 
nobilior, Muskellunge. 
AnguillidcB: 

AnguiUa rostrata, Eel. 
Miigilidce: 

Mugil alhiila, Mullet 
Scombridce : 

Scomber scombriis, Mackerel. 

Scomberomorus macidatus, Spanish mackerel. 

Orcynns thynnus, Tunny. 
Cirangidce: 

Trachynoiiis caroJinns, Pompano. 
t'omatomidcc: 

Pomatomiis saltatrix, Bluefish. 
Siromateidcc : 

Stromateus triacanthiis, Butter-fish. 
Centrarchidce : 

Micropterus salmoides, Large-mouthed black bass. 
doloniieu, Small-mouthed black bass. 
Pcrcidcc : 

Perca fluviaiilis, Yellow perch. 

Stizostedion vitremn, Wall-eyed pike. 
canadense, Gray pike. 
SerranidcB : 

Roccus lineatus, Striped bass. 

americanus, White perch. 

C entropy istis atrariiis, Sea bass. 
■ Epinephelus morio, Red grouper. 
SparidcB : 

Litijaniis blackjordi, Red snapper. 

Slenotomus clirysops, Porgy. 

Diplodus probatocephahts, Sheepshead. 
Sciccnidcc : 

Sckcna ocellata, Red bass. 

Menticirnis saxatilis, Kingtish. 

Cynoscion regale, Weakfish. 
Labridce: 

Hialuhi ouitis, Blackfish. 
Gadidcc : 

Phycis chiiss, Hake. 

Brosmius brosme, Cusk. 

MeJanogrammus (rglepmis, Haddock. 

Gad lis morrhita, Cod. 

Microgadus tomcod, Tomcod. 

PoUachiits virens, Pollock. 
Pleuronectidce : 

Hippoglossus hippoglossus, Halibut. 

Platysomatichthys hippogJossoides, Turbot. 

Paralichthys dentatus, Flounder. 

Pseudopleuronectes americanus, Flounder. 



CONSTITUENTS OF FLESH OF FISH. II9 

Petromyzontidce : 

Petromyzon marinus, Lamprey eel. 
Raiidce : 

Rata sp., Skate. 

Some of the scientific names in the above list have been modified by recent 
research, but it is advisable to present the above classification for purpose of 
reference. The variations from these names will be given in the part of the 
discussion relating to the food value of fish, in which the classification of Jor- 
dan and Evermann is followed. 

Edible Portion of Fish. — As in the case of other animals large parts of 
fish as taken from the water are inedible. In the preparation of fish the 
head is usually removed, especially if the fish be of any size, and the entrails 
rejected. If the fish be scaly, the scales are also removed. The latter vary 
very greatly in different specimens according to species, size, etc. Usually the 
edible portion of the fish is larger in quantity than the inedible, though this 
is not by any means universally the case. Taking fish of all kinds together 
it may be said that from 55 to 60 percent of the total weight is edible. This, 
of course, excludes the bones as well as the other portions already referred to. 

Principal Constituents of the Flesh of Fish. — In the flesh of cattle, 
swine, and other edible animals already mentioned it is seen that the protein 
is the principal part of the edible portion. In many kinds of meat, however, 
the fat is the principal portion, as in bacon. In the flesh of fish the albumi- 
noids occupy a more prominent part than in the flesh of domesticated animals 
or game. In other words the proportion of fat, which is one of the principal 
ingredients of the flesh of other animals, is less than in the other kinds of 
flesh. The protein in the water-free substance often constitutes over go 
percent of the total matter, and rarely falls below 80 percent. The next 
most important constituent of the dry flesh of fish naturally is the fat. The 
average content of fat in the dry flesh of fish is under 10, — it rarely goes above 
20 and sometimes falls as low as 2 or 3 percent. The mineral content of 
the dry flesh of fish is quite constant. It rarely falls below 4 or goes above 
8 percent; 5 percent may be regarded as a fair average content of mineral 
matter. The mineral matter consists chiefly of phosphate of potash and lime, 
together with some common salt. In the analyses made by Atwater, adopted 
in the following pages, he grouped together the fish analyzed l)y the })roj)()rtion 
or quantity of the edible portion or flesh which they contained. Groupings 
were also made on account of the dry substance in the flesh and the proportion 
of water and fat which they contained. These tables are of value show- 
ing in a general way the relative food importance of the different specimens 
of fish. This classification is given in t'le follov.ing taljlc: 



Classification of Fishes by Percentages of Flesh, Chiefly Muscular Tissue 

IN Entire Body. 



Kinds of Fish. 



Containing- 60 percent or over 
of flesh. 

Spanish mackerel 

Salmon 

Red snapper 



Containing beizveen 60 and yo 
percent of flesh. 

Smelt 

Pike (pickerel) 

Cisco 

Butter-fish 

Spent salmon 

Mackerel 

Pompano 

Lamprey eel 

Herring 

Pickerel 

Spent land-locked salmon . . 

Turbot 

Brook trout 

Muskellunge 

Alewife 



O S N 

. £ ^ 
d o d 



Per- 
cent. 

654 
64.7 
60.0 



58.1 
57-3 
57-3 
57-2 
56.4 
55-4 
54-5 
54-2 
54-0 
52.9 
52-7 
52-3 
51-9 
50.8 
50-5 



Kinds of Fish. 



Containing between 50 and 40 
percent of flesh. 

Shad 

Weakfish 

Cod 

Whitefish 

Small-mouthed black bass . . . 

Striped bass 

Large-mouthed black bass . . . 

Sea Dass 

Winter flounder 

Lake trout, " Mackinaw trout " 

Kingfish 

Pike perch, " Wall-eyed pike " . 

Mullet 

Tomcod 

Porgy 

Containing between 40 and jo 
percent of flesh. 

Black fish 

White perch 

Yellow perch . . ' 

Pike perch 

Red bass . . . ., 

Sheepshead 

Common flounder 



zo 

& w i^ 
o H N 



Per- 
cent. 

49-9 
48.1 

47-5 
46.5 
464 

45-1 
44.0 

43-9 
43-8 
43-7 
43-4 
42.8 
42.1 
40.1 
40.0 



39-9 

37-5 
37-3 
36.8 

36.5 
34-0 
33-2 



Classification of Fishes by Proportions of Fat in the Flesh of Specimens 

Analyzed. 



Kinds of Fish. 



Containing over 5 percent 
of fats. 

California salmon 

Turbot 

Salmon 

Lamprey eel 

Lake trout 

Butter-fish 

Herring 

Shad 

Spanish mackerel 

Salt-water eel 

Pompano 

Mackerel 

Whitefish 

Halibut 

Porgy 

Containing betiveen 5 and 
2 percent of fats. 

Alewife 

Mullet 

White perch 

Sheepshead 

Spent salmon 

Cisco 

Spent land-locked salmon . 

Striped' bass 

Muskellunge 

Small-mouthed black bass . 

Weakfish 

Small-mouthed red-horse . 
Brook trout 



go 

^' ^ '-' 
o H < 



Per- 
cent. 

63.6 

71.4 
63.6 
71. 1 
6g.i 
70.0 
69.0 
70.6 
68.1 
71.6 
72.8 
73-4 
69.8 
75-4 
75-0 



74-4 
74-9 
75-7 
75-6 
76.7 
76.2 
78.5 
77-7 
76.3 
74.8 
79.0 
78.6 
77-7 



Per- 
cent. 

17-9 
14.4 
134 
13-3 
11.4 

II.O 
II. o 

9-5 
9.4 

9-1 
7.6 

7-1 
6.5 
5-2 
5-1 



Kinds of Fish. 



Co7itaining less than z, the 
majority less than i per- 
cent of fats. 

Sturgeon 

Smelt 

Skate 

Blackfish 

Bluefish 

Red snapper 

Large-mouthed black bass . 

Kingfish 

Pollock 

Yellow perch 

Pike perch, gray pike . . . 

Hake 

Common flounder 

Grouper 

Pike (pickerel?) 

Sea bass 

Pike perch, wall-eyed pike . 

Pickerel 

Red bass 

Tomcod 

Cod 

Winter flounder 

Haddock 

Cusk 



,.zO 

s >< 
dud 



Per- 
cent. 

78.7 
79.2 
82.2 
79.1 
78.5 
78.5 
78.6 
79.2 
76.0 
79-3 
80.9 
83.1 
84.2 
79-4 
79.8 
79-3 
79-7 
79-7 
81.6 
81.6 
82.6 
84.4 
81.7 
82.0 



Per- 
cent. 



1.4 
1.4 

1-3 
i.o 
i.o 
1.0 
0.8 
08 
0.8 
0.7 
0.7 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 
0-5 
0-5 
05 
04 
0.4 
0.4 

03 
0.2 



ALE WIVES. 



121 



Classification of Fishes by Proportions of Water-free Substance in the 
Flesh of Specimens Analyzed. 



Kinds of Fish. 



Contaitiing over jo percent of 
■water-free substance. 

California salmon 

Salmon 

Spanish mackerel 

Herring 

Lake trout 

Whitefish 

Containing from jo to 25 per- 
cent of jvater-free substance. 

Butter-fish 

Shad 

Lamprey eel 

Turbot 

Salt-water eel 

Pompano 

Mackerel 

Alewife 

Small-mouthed black bass . . . 

Mullet 

Porgy 

Containing betiueen 25 and 20 per- 
cent of water-free substance. 

Halibut 

Sheepshead 

White perch 

Pollock 

Cisco 

Muskellunge 

Spent salmon 

Striped bass 





W In 






Per- 






cent. 




2 

5 


364 
364 




I 


31-9 




I 


31.0 




2 

I 


30.9 
30.2 




I 


30.0 




■ 7 
I 


29.4 

28.q 




I 


28.6 




2 


284 




2 
6 


27.2 
26.6 




2 


25.6 




I 
I 


252 

25-1 




3 


25.0 




3 


24.6 




2 


24-5 




2 


24-3 




I 


24 




1 


23-9 




I 


237 




2 
6 


233 
22.3 





Kinds of Fish. 



Containing betiveen 25 and 20 
percent of waterfree sub- 
stance — Continued. 

Brook trout 

Bluefish 

Red snapper 

Spent land-locked salmon . . . 

Small-mouthed red-horse . . 

Large-mouthed black bass . . . 

Sturgeon 

Weakfish 

Blackfish 

Smelt 

Kingfish 

Yellow perch 

Sea bass 

Grouper 

Pickerel 

Pike perch, " wall-eyed pike " . 

Pike (pickerel ?) 

Containing between 20 and z^ per- 
cent of water-free substance. 

Pike perch, gray pike 

Tonicod 

Red bass 

Haddock 

Cusk 

Skate 

Cod 

Hake 

Common flounder 

W'inter flounder 



^«5 






Per- 
cent. 
22.3 

21-5 
21-5 
21-5 

21.4 

21.4 

21-3 

21.0 
20.9 

20.8 
20.8 
20.8 

20.7 

20.6 

20.3 
20.3 

20.2 



19.2 

18.5 

IS.4 

18.3 
18.0 

17-9 

17.4 

16.9 

15.8 

15-7 



In the scientific names of the food fishes described in the following pages 
and in the description of their habits, methods of spawning, geographic dis- 
tribution, etc., the classification of Jordan and Evermann* has been followed. 

Alewives. — A fish belonging to a genus very close to that to which the her- 
ring belongs is known as alewife. The name of the genus is Pomolobiis. It 
is commonly known as a herring. For instance, the fresh-water skipjack or 
blue herring, — the tailor herring or hickory shad, — and the real alewife or 
branch herring are all common species of this genus. One specimen of this 
genus is the fresh-water skipjack or blue herring {Pomolobiis chrysochloris) 
found in the larger streams in the Mississippi valle}- and also in Lake Erie and 
Lake Michigan. It is strictly a fresh-water fish, but has also been found in 
salt water on the Gulf coast. The tailor herring is found along the Atlantic 
coast from Cape Cod to Florida. In the Potomac x'wer it is known as tailor 
shad or " fresh-water tailor, " and is highly esteemed as a food fish in Washing- 
ton and vicinity. Their value is found rather in their coming earlier than the 

* "American Food and Game Fishes," by Jordan and Evermann, i vol., large 8vo, 
pp. i to 1 -|- I to 572. Twelve colored y)lates and several hundred full-page plates 
from photographs from life and text-figures. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York. 



122 FISH FOODS. 

shad than in their true value, for as soon as the shad come in great abundance 
there is no longer any market for the alewife. 
Composition of Alewife. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 74-41 percent 

Protein iQ-i? " 75. S7 percent 

Fat, 4.92 " 1Q.08 " 

Ash, 1.47 " 5-78 

This fish, it is seen, has very much less oil in it than the true herring, — in 
fact, only a little more than one-half as much. It, however, has a correspond- 
ingly larger percentage of protein. 

The tailor herring and hickory shad are distributed along the coast from 
Cape Cod to Florida. The branch herring (Pomo/obus pseudoharengus) is 
found along the Atlantic coast as far south as Charleston, entering fresh-water 
streams to spawn, usually two or three weeks ahead of the shad. It occurs 
also in Lake Ontario and in several of the small lakes in northern New York 
in which it is land-locked. The summer herring (Pomo/obus ccstivalis) also 
occurs along the Atlantic coast. 

Anchovy. — The anchovy is a small fish which is eaten more as a relish 
in the pickled state than in the fresh state, and is highly prized by many con- 
noisseurs. Anchovies of various species are found on both the Atlantic and 
Pacific coasts, — on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Brazil and on the 
western coast from southern California southward. These fish reach a length 
of from 2 to 7 inches. The very small ones are sometimes known as " white- 
bait." Those that are pickled and used for food are usually from 3 to 6 inches 
in length. Pickled sprat is called anchovy in Norway and Sweden. 

Composition 0} Preserved Anchovies. — 

Water, 57.8 percent 

Protein, = 22.3 " 

Fat, 2.2 " 

Ash (principally salt), 23.7 " 

Black Bass. — Two species of black bass are well known to the American 
fisherman and to the American cuisine. The one is called the small-mouth 
black bass (Micropterus dolomieu) and the other the large-mouth black bass 
(Micropterus salmoides). These fishes are found in the fresh waters of the 
United States, especially in the northern portion, almost everywhere. Both 
species have been propagated both by the National and State Fish Commis- 
sions. Especially have they been introduced into the northeastern waters 
where they originally did not occur, or only in small numbers. 

Bluefish. — The bluefish (family Pomatomidae) is one of the valuable food 
fishes of our Atlantic coast. It is a voracious, carnivorous fish, and apparently 
loves to destroy as well as to eat. It is stated that the bluefish copies after the 
style which was once said to be in vogue in Rome, viz., when its stomach is 



CATFISH. 



123 



filled it disgorges it for the purpose of eating a new ration. The size of the 
bluefish runs from 3 to 5 pounds, though occasionally very much larger exam- 
ples are taken. As a food fish it is said to rank in the estimation of the connois- 
seur with pompanoand Spanish mackerel. The bluefish is one of the popular 
fishes in all the large markets of the Atlantic coast. The flesh has a fine flavor, 
but, like the pompano, it does not keep well. 
Composition.—- 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 78.46 percent 

Protein, 19.02 " go.13 percent 

Fat, 1.25 " 5.79 " 

Ash, 1.27 " 5.91 " 

A comparison of the flesh of this fish with the pompano shows that it is 
particularly a protein food, the fat being even less abundant than the mineral 
matter. It, therefore, is not so well balanced a ration as the flesh of the pom- 
pano and other fish in which the fat forms a considerable portion of the edible 
matter. 

Carp. — The carp is a fish used very largely for food purposes, but it has 
not the fine flavor and character of most fishes. The carp cultivated in 
America is known as the German carp (Cypriniis carpio). 

The carp belongs to the large family of fishes known as the minnows or 
Cyprinidae. This family is a large one, having about 200 genera and more 
than 1000 species, all of which are inhabitants of fresh water in North America 
and Eurasia. None of this family is highly regarded as food in the sense of 
flavor and aroma, except, perhaps, some of the smaller species. The nutritive 
value of the carp, however, is probably as great as that of any, but it is coarser 
and less attractive to the taste. Some of the most common species of this 
family are the dace, fallfish, river chub, creek chub, squaw-fish, and roach. 

Catfish. — Catfish, of which there are many species, belong to the family of 
Siluridae,andare among the most common fresh-water fishes found in the United 
States. They occur in small as well as large fresh-water streams and lakes, and 
it is one of the species which the American boy most delights in catching with 
hook and line. The catfish is most conveniently taken after night, and the 
smouldering fire and small boy on the bank of a stream is a frecjuent picture 
of American country life. There are more than 100 genera of the catfish 
family and about 1000 species. Only about one-third of the species inhabit 
salt water. The North American fresh-water species are confined particu- 
larly to the Atlantic coast, the Mississippi valley, and the Gulf states. There 
are no native species of the catfish in the fresh waters of the Pacific coast. 
The blue catfish, known as the Mi.ssissippi catfish, is the most prominent 
species {Ictalurus jnrcatiis). It is found particularly in the Mississippi 
river and its large tributaries. Sometimes it grows to an immense size, indi- 
viduals having been found reaching 150 pounds in weight. If the stream 



124 FISH FOODS. 

in which the catfish lives runs north and south it will be found in the southern 
part of the stream in the winter and in the northern part in summer. This 
fish is highly prized for edible purposes. In the small streams the catfish is 
correspondingly small and weighs from less than one pound to two or three 
pounds only. The small catfish, especially in the small streams tributary to 
the Ohio and Mississippi, has edible properties which are far superior to the 
large catfish growing in the rivers themselves. 

The catfish of the small streams and lakes are commonly known as bull- 
heads, since the head is large and wide. The name of the most common or 
best known species is Ameirus nebulosus. This species is found from 
Maine westward and southward. In Pennsylvania it is known as the 
Schuylkill cat, and everywhere generally throughout the country as a small 
catfish. 

Codfish. — One of the most famous food fish of the American waters is the 
codfish. It is a widely distributed fish. There are said to be about 25 genera 
and 140 species. The codfish is particularly a fish of the northern waters. 
Only one genus is found in fresh-water lakes and streams. 

The Common Cod. — The common codfish (family Gadidae) is the species 
Gadiis caUarias. It is rarely found south of the Virginia coast, but is especially 
abundant off the New England and Newfoundland coast. The great center of 
the codfish industry is in the vicinity of Newfoundland. Gloucester, Massa- 
chusetts, is the principal town devoted to the codfish industry in the United 
States. The cod is an omnivorous fish and especially fond of crustaceans, 
mollusks, and small fish. It also eats vegetation, and it is stated by Jordan and 
Evermann that all sorts of things have been found in cod stomachs, such as oil 
cans, finger rings, rubber dolls, rocks, pieces of clothing, etc. The livers of 
the cod, especially those of Norwegian origin, are extremely valuable, being the 
source of cod liver oil, which is considered by many to be the most valuable 
medicinal food known. Cod liver oil, while not palatable, is highly nutritious. 
The cod livers contain, according to some authorities, over 60 distinct chemical 
substances, many of which are highly important for their medicinal qualities. 
The cod move in schools, but not in such dense bodies as the mackerel, herring, 
and menhaden. Their movements are largely controlled by the temperature of 
the water and their desire for food. This species probably does not reach a 
greater length than 3 feet and a w'eight of more than 25 pounds. The average 
weight of the large-size cod in New England waters is about 15 pounds and on 
the Grand Banks of Newfoundland 20 pounds. The average weight of the 
small-size cod in these waters is about 1 2 pounds. It is one of the most prolific 
of fishes. The ovaries of a 21 -pound cod were found to contain 2,700,000 eggs 
and of a 75-pound cod 9,100,000 eggs. The eggs are very small and require 
about 337,000 to make a quart. The cod is one of the most valuable of all 
fishes from a commercial point of view and also on account of international re- 



SALTED AND DRIED COD. 1 25 

lations. On some occasions this country has apparently been on the verge of 
war with Great Britain respecting questions relating to the fisheries on tlie 
banks of Newfoundland. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has probably done 
more to propagate the cod than any other variety of fish. More than five 
hundred million cod fry have been liberated at different times by the Bureau 
and the number in one year has approximated 100,000,000. The color of the 
common cod is green or brown, but is subject to very great variations, — some- 
times it is yellow or red and a variety of tints are assumed. 
Composition. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 82.64 percent 

Protein, i5-77 " 95.13 percent 

Fat, 36 " 2.07 " 

Ash, 1.23 " 7.08 " 

These data show that the flesh of cod fish is perhaps the most exclusively 
nitrogenous of any of the more abundant food fish. The quantity of fat 
contained therein is less than ^ of the total weight. The flesh of the fresh cod 
is more largely composed of water than that of the ordinary fish, containing 
approximately 83 percent of that substance. The flesh of the cod itself is an 
unbalanced ration, and needs to be eaten with butter and potatoes in order to 
make a complete ration. The hake, which is sometimes substituted for the 
cod without the knowledge of the purchaser, has very much the same chemical 
constituents, containing — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 83. 1 1 percent 

Protein, 15-24 " qi.oo percent 

Fat, 67 " 3.97 " 

Ash, 96 " 5.77 " 

It is seen that there is very little difference in the chemical composition of 
these two fishes. This, however, does not justify the substitution of the hake 
for the cod, inasmuch as the hake is inferior in palatability to the cod. 

Salted and Dried Cod. — In the United States the cod is particularly de- 
voted to the use of curing and salting, and in this cured state is even more 
highly valued, especially for the making of codfish balls, than it is in its fresh 
state. The old-fashioned method of salting and smoking produced a flesh 
of very high flavor, yielding under proper treatment in the kitchen a most 
delicious base for the fish ball. Under the modern system of quick curing^ 
the salting and smoking have largely disappeared and the fish are cured in 
brine, and with the help of borax a product is produced which is less pala- 
table than the old-fashioned cured fish. 

Composition oj dry Salted and Dried Cod. — 

Protein, 45-^5 percent 

Fat, 5^ " 

Salt, 53.82 



126 FISH FOODS. 

These data show that more than half of the weight in the water-free state 
is composed of salt. The codfish is also put up as boned fish in which nothing 
but the flesh is found, as desiccated cod, as shredded codfish and in various 
other forms. 

Average Composition oj Codfish Balls. — 

Water, 65.43 percent 

Solids, 34-5 7 

Nitrogen, 1.05 

Phosphoric acid, 25 

Sulfur, 10 

Fat, 7.84 

Ash, 4.05 

Protein, '. 6.58 

The diilerence between the composition of the fish balls and the average 
composition of fish is clearly brought out by the data recorded. In the 
average composition of fish the sum of the fat, ash, and protein is greater than 
the solids obtained by difference by 0.36 percent. In the codfish balls the 
sum of the ingredients mentioned is less than the solids by difference by 16.10 
per cent. This is due to the added potato, salt, etc. 

Average Composition of Shredded Codfish. — 

Water, 46.52 percent 

Ash (chiefly salt), 22.81 " 

Fat, ii " 

Protein, 30.85 " 

Eels. — The common eel is a fish which is extremely long in proportion to 
its size and has the general appearance, to the uninitiated, of a snake. The 
resemblance of the eel to a snake in shape is probably one of the reasons why 
it is not more highly valued as a food. The eels, perhaps, are not to be 
considered as true fish. The common eel {AngiiiUa chrysypa) is widely 
distributed throughout most parts of the United States, especially the eastern 
part. It extends southward as far as the West Indies, and is found in more 
or less abundance on the Gulf coast. Although a salt-water fish, it differs 
from most other eels in its penchant for ascending fresh-water streams. It 
often goes to the very headwaters, especially in the rivers of the Atlantic 
coast and Mississippi valley. Eels are often found in lakes which seem to 
have had no communication with the sea, which shows that they are able 
to surmount barriers which seem impossible to cross. Jordan and Evermanr 
claim that the eel is really a fresh-water fish and that its real home is in the 
fresh-water rivers and lakes, and that it runs down to salt water only at spawn- 
ing time, thus showing a quality or characteristic exactly opposite to that of 
the salmon and shad, which are true salt-water fish and come into fresh waters 
for spawning. Eels, like the carp, are more or less scavengers, feeding upon 
all manner of refuse, especially dead fish. They are very destructive of 



SUMMER FLOUNDER. 12'J 

other fish, especially of young shad and herring. When nets are placed 
for shad and herring and the fish are caught therein the eels often 
invade the net, and when it is drawn it is filled largely with the skeletons of 
the fish, the flesh of which has been removed by the eels. Eels have a high 
value as food fish, both on account of their nutritive value and their flavor. 
The average length of the eel is from 2 to 3 feet, though much larger examples 
are sometimes found. 

Composition oj the Eel. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 71.60 percent 

Protein, 18.28 " 65.25 percent 

Fat, 9. II " 31-92 " 

Ash, 1. 01 " 3.60 " 

These data show that the eel is rather richer in fat than the majority of 
fish, although there are some that exceed it in this constituent. 

Conger Eel. — The conger eel belongs to the family Leptocephalidae. It 
inhabits salt water only, is scaleless, and grows to much larger sizes than the 
common eel, sometimes as long as 7 or 8 feet. It is not used for food in the 
United States, but is to some extent in Europe and the West Indies. On the 
east coast of the United States they do not occur very frequently. Only a few 
species are known, and these are of small extent and have little food value. 

Summer Flounder. — This fish (Paralichthys dentatus) is quite abundant 
on the Atlantic coast, frequenting the coast from Cape Cod to the Carolinas. 
It reaches a length of from 2 to 3 feet and has a weight of about 15 pounds. It 
is caught very extensively off the New England coast. The principal fishing 
grounds are in the region of Block Island, Martha's Vineyard, and the eastern 
end of Long Island. There is another species known as the southern flounder 
{Paralichthys lethostigmus), which flourishes from Charleston southward, and 
is found along the entire Gulf coast. There is also another species on the 
Gulf coast called the Gulf flounder {Paralichthys albigiittus). There is also a 
wide flounder or common flatfish {Paralichthys americaniis) which is found 
along the coast of Labrador, southward to the Carolinas. It is especially 
abundant along the coast of southern New England. It is a small species, 
rarely being over 20 inches in length, the average length being from 12 to 15 
inches, and weighs from 2 to 3 poimds. This species of flounder has been ex- 
tensively propagated by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, as many as 100,000,000 
fry having been planted in one season. 

Composition of Summer Flounder. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 84.21 percent 

Protein, 13-82 " 89.03 percent 

Fat, 60 " 4.46 " 

Ash, 1.28 " 8.15 

The flesh of this fish is particularly high in water and low in fat. 



128 FISH FOODS. 

Graylings. — The graylings belong to a family very closely resembling the 
Salmonidae. They occur chiefly in northern or Arctic waters. One species 
found in Michigan is known as the Michigan grayling. It is a fish that is not 
only distinguished on account of its food value but also on account of its grace- 
ful shape and pleasing appearance. Another species occurs in Montana, and 
has been distributed very largely by the Bureau of Fisheries. It is not a fish 
which is of any great economic importance. 

The Haddock. — This is a fish very nearly related to the cod, but it has a 
smaller mouth and differs in other essentials, particularly in its chemical con- 
stituents, from the cod. The haddock has a food value which is probably not 
inferior to that of the cod. It is one of our most abundant fishes, and by some 
consumers the flesh is preferred to that of the cod. The usual weight of the 
haddock is about 3 or 4 pounds. It is, therefore, a much smaller fish than the 
cod. The species is Melanogrammus ceglefinits. On the Atlantic coast it 
does not occur north of the Straits of Belle Isle. The haddock is particularly 
abundant on the Massachusetts coast in summer. Like the cod, the haddock 
is well suited for salting, smoking, and curing in various ways. It, however, 
has not been used to such an extent as the cod for those purposes, finding a 
more ready market in the fresh state. 

Composition. — 

Water, 81. 6g percent 

Protein, 16.83 " 

Fat, 25 " 

Ash, 1.23 " 

In the dry substance. 

Protein, 93.89 percent 

Fat, 1.34 " 

Ash, 6.76 " 

The flesh of the haddock, it is seen, is even more exclusively nitrogenous 
than that of the cod and contains slightly less fat. The two species are often 
sold under the same name. 

The Hake. — There are several species of hakes, family Merluccidae. The 
common European hake is the species Merhiccius merhiccius. The hake 
which is found mostly in American waters is Merhiccius productits, and occurs 
very abundantly on the Pacific coast and is largely eaten as food. The flesh, 
however, is rather coarse and not very palatable. Another species which is 
found on our Atlantic coast from New England northward is Merlnccius hili- 
nearis. 

Halibut. — The halibut {Hippoglossus hippoglossus) is a fish which is 
highly esteemed and occurs in great quantities. It is a fish which frequents 
northern waters, and especially the North Atlantic on the American coast. It 
has not been taken south of Montauk Point, bvit extends as far north as the 



HERRING. 129 

coast of Greenland, and is also found aljout Iceland and Spitzl)er<j;en in a lati- 
tude of 80 degrees. It does not like water above 45 degrees F., and is often 
found in water at the freezing point, namely, 32 degrees. The halibut is also 
found on the Pacific coast, especially off Oregon and Washington "and in 
British Columbia and Alaska. It is one of the largest of food fish. The fish 
weighing about 80 pounds are considered the best for food, although the hali- 
but sometimes reaches a weight of over 500 pounds. The male is always 
smaller than the female and less palatable. The annual value of the halibut 
fisheries on the North Atlantic coast is probably f million dollars. It is 
probably slightly more than this on the Pacific coast, — in fact the Pacific coast 
fisheries have grown so extensi\'ely that halibut is shipped eastward across the 
continent. Vast freight trains known as the "Halibut Express" have been 
sent across the continent from Vancouver to Boston, making the trip in six or 
seven days. 

Composition. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 75-42 percent 

Protein, 18.35 " 77.18 percent 

Fat, 5.17 " 19.32 

Ash, 1.06 " 4.39 " 

The halibut is a fish containing considerable quantities of fat, and is not so 
peculiarly nitrogenous in its character as the cod or the haddock. It, there- 
fore, makes a better balanced ration than either of the other fish. The 
halibut in the fresh state is esteemed fully as highly as the cod, and the halibut 
steak is a very common part of the fish sold upon the market. 

Herring. — The herrings form a very important group of fishes belonging 
to the family Clupeidae. There are about 30 genera in the family and 150 
species. The herrings are essentially salt-water fishes and are usually found 
in large schools. Many species, and some of these the most valuable for food, 
ascend fresh-water streams for spawning. Certain species, for instance, are 
caught at the same season as the shad in the Chesapeake and Susquehanna. 
There are a few species which remain permanently in fresh water. The com- 
mon herring {Clnpca harcngus) is one of the most important of the food fishes 
of the whole Atlantic coast, and really over almost all the north Atlantic, 
throughout which it is generally distributed. The principal herring fisheries 
are in the North Sea, in Denmark and Norwav. Important fisheries are also 
found off the coast of Great Britain, Belgium, France, and the United States. 
It is estimated that as many as three billion herring may be found in a shoal, 
covering a dozen square miles. Herring shoals of much larger extent are on 
record. The herring do not frequent southern waters, but are found in the 
cool and more northern waters of the Atlantic. On the coast of the United 
States it has been found as far south as Cape Hatteras, though it does not 



130 FISH FOODS. 

occur very abundantly further south than New England, The fish at the 
period of spawning are considered the most valuable for food purposes. 

The herring is either sold in a fresh state or it may be smoked, salted, or 
pickled, and in this condition is very extensively used as food. A species of 
herring is found on the Pacific coast known as California herring (Clupea 
pallasii). It does not differ very greatly in its general aspect from its relation 
on the Atlantic coast. This species occurs very abundantly in the region of 
Puget Sound, especially in summer time, and in southeast Alaska. They are 
extremely abundant in San Francisco markets in the spring time, so much so 
that it is difficult to find a sale for them. 

The California herring are more highly valued and bring the highest price 
in the early winter, when they are the fattest. 

Composition of Herring. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 6Q.03 percent 

Protein, 18.46 " 61.69 percent 

Fat, 11.01 " 35.55 

Ash, 1.50 " 4.83 

The above data show that the flesh of herring is particularly rich in fat. 
In fact the herring is sometimes used as a source of oil. In southeast Alaska 
are extensive oil and guano works which utilize the herring for these purposes. 

Horse Mackerel. — Another species belonging to the mackerel family is 
the horse mackerel or tuna (Thunnus thynnus), which is found in considerable 
abundance on our North Atlantic coast and on the coast of southern California. 
Its common name is " tuna," " tunny," " horse mackerel, " or " great albacore." 
The horse mackerel is a fish of very great size and is the very largest of the 
whole mackerel family. They occasionally attain a length of 10 feet or more 
and a weight of 1 500 pounds. The average dimensions, of course, are very 
much less than this. The horse mackerel does not grow so large in Europe 
or upon the Pacific coast. In these regions a horse mackerel weighing 500 
pounds is considered of an extraordinary size. The very large ones are never 
taken with hook and line, but there are records of fish of over 200 pounds that 
have been captured in this way. 

The Hogfish. — The hogfish of the West Indies and our southern coasts 
is another of the wrasse-fishes whose scientific name is Lachnolainius maximus. 
It is called in Porto Rico " el capitan." It often reaches a weight of 20 pounds 
and a length of from 2 to 3 feet. The name "hogfish" doubtless is derived 
from the shape of the head, which resembles somewhat that of the hog. It is 
valued as a food fish throughout the West Indies. 

Lake Herring. — The so-called lake herring is very closely related to the 
whitefish. The name of the species is Argyrosomus artedi. The lake 
herring has a large number of common names, of which the most widely 
applied is the term "Cisco." The terms blueback, greenback, and grayback 



MACKEREL. 



131 



are also applied to these herring. The habitat of this fish is that of the whole 
region of the Great Lakes and north to Hudson Bay. It has much the same 
habitat as the whitefish. The average weight of the lake herring is about one 
pound. The subspecies {Argyrosomus artedi sisco) is found in Lake Tippe- 
canoe and other small lakes in Wisconsin and northern Indiana. 
Composition of Cisco. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 76.15 percent 

Protein, 19.12 " 80.75 percent 

Fat, 3.48 " 14-59 " 

Ash, 1.25 " 5.25 " 

MackereL — The mackerel is a food fish which is very commonly used in a 
cured state in the interior of the country and is eaten fresh on the sea coast. 
Its habitat is principally the North Atlantic ocean. On the coast of the United 
States it is found from Cape Hatteras north to the Strait of Belle Isle. In 
Europe it is found from Norway southward to the Mediterranean and Adriatic. 
The mackerel on the Atlantic coast usually appear first in the spring near Cape 
Hatteras and following the custom of the shad are found later farther north 
in the New England states and also in the British possessions. They leave 
the coast in the inverse order in the autumn, disappearing first in the northern 
regions and later in the southern portion. 

The mackerel is one of the most abundant of fishes in the Atlantic Ocean, 
traveling in immense schools. There is record of a school which was seen 
in 1848 which was at least half a mile wide and 20 miles long. In some 
seasons the mackerel is extremely abundant and in others very scarce. The 
average catch is probably about 300,000 barrels. Boston and Gloucester 
are centers of the mackerel fishing industry. It is estimated that from 150 
to 300 vessels of American bottoms are engaged in the mackerel industry. 
The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has been particularly interested in the propaga- 
tion of mackerel, but the result has not been as satisfactory as in the case of 
many other fishes. The young mackerel or small fishes are known as " spikes," 
"blinkers," and "tinkers." When they are about two years old they measure 
from 5 to 9 inches in length. The mackerel attains its full size at about the 
fourth year. The scientific name of the common mackerel is Scomber 
scombrus Linnaeus. 

Composition oj MackereL — Edible portion: 

Fresh. Dry 

Water, 73-37 percent 

Protein, 18.26 " T^-T^ percent 

Fat, y.oq " 24.88 " 

Ash, 1.28 " 4.78 " 

The above data show that the flesh of the mackerel is composed of about 
two-thirds protein and one-third fat and ash. 



132 FISH FOODS. 

Pickled mackerel, salted mackerel, and smoked mackerel are perhaps as 
highly valued for food purposes as the fresh fish itself. 

Menhaden. — The menhaden is not used chiefly as a food fish but to some 
extent therefor. It is one of the most abundant fishes taken upon our Atlantic 
coast and is used almost exclusively as a source of oil, the residue being dried 
and ground for fertilizing purposes. In this sense it has great value because 
of the high nitrogen content of the residue and also of the considerable quantity 
of phosphoric acid which is contained therein. 

The menhaden is known scientifically as Brevoortia tyrannus. Up 
to 1880 immense quantities of menhaden were taken off the Atlantic coast. 
Since that time the supply has not been considered so great. In the year 
1877 it is stated by Jordan and Evermann that one oil company took 20 million 
fish and in one town alone, namely Booth Bay, 50 miUion fish were caught. 

The fecundity of the menhaden is very great, exceeding that of the shad. 
More than 140,000 eggs have been taken from a single fish. The menhaden 
are not eaten very extensively in a fresh state as food but preserved in salt 
they have a considerable value for that purpose. An extract has also been made 
from the flesh of the menhaden on the same principle of manufacture as is utilized 
in preparation of meat extracts. The menhaden is known under a great num- 
ber of common names, some thirty of which have been enumerated by Dr. 
Goode. 

Composition 0} Menhaden. — 

Water, 77-i5 percent 

Fat, 3.91 

Protein by difference, 18.94 " 

The water-free flesh contains (including bones) 21.7 percent of mineral 
matter. 

Composition of the Mineral Matter. — 

Lime, 8.67 percent 

Phosphoric acid, 7.78 " 

Silicic acid, 1.33 " 

Potash, 1.54 " 

Soda, 1.02 " 

Magnesia, 0.67 " 

Chlorin, : 0.69 " 

Total, 21.70 " 

Mullet. — The mullet belongs to the Mugilidse, an important family of fishes 
in which there are several genera and species. The mullet is not particular 
about its food but is in the habit of swallowing large quantities of mud, or 
rather partially swallowing it and separating the refuse and most obnoxious 
particles by means of the gills. The common mullet or striped mullet (Mugil 
cephalus) is a widely distributed species. This fish is common along the 
Atlantic coast and in Hawaii, usually traveling in large schools, and is most 



PICKEREL OR PIKE. 



133 



abundant in the shallow waters of the coast. It sometimes reaches a length 
of two feet and is an important food fish. The mullet is very abundant on the 
Florida coasts. While the mullet may be regarded as a scavenger, living prin- 
cipally on mud, it does not eat any other species of fish, but is itself eaten by 
nearly all fishes that can gain access to it. 
Composition oj the Mullet. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 74-87 percent 

Protein, 19-32 " 77-5° P'^' ■""-'*-' "^ 

Fat, 4.64 " 18.45 " 

Ash, 1. 17 " 4.66 " 

Muskallunge. — A very noted member of this family is the muskallunge 
(Esox masquinongy). It is a native of the Great Lukes and is especially 
found in the upper St. Lawrence. It is not a very abundant fish, but is highly 
prized from the angler's point of view. It is of very great size, having been 
found as long as 8 feet and weighing over 100 pounds. Two other species of 
muskallunge are known, one {Esox.ohiensis or the Chautauqua muskallunge) 
in the Ohio river basin, particularly in Lake Chautauqua, where it has been 
artificially pro{)agated with great success, and the unspotted muskallunge 
(Esox immacidatus), which occurs sparingly in certain small lakes of northern 
Wisconsin and Minnesota. 

Composition of the Muskallunge. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 76.26 percent 

Protein, 19-63 " 84.87 percent 

Fat, 2.54 " 10.70 " 

Ash, 1.57 " 6.63 

The flesh of the muskallunge, as is seen, contains about four times as much 
fat as that of the pickerel, and forms a ration which is not so unbalanced as 
that of the pickerel itself. 

Pickerel or Pike. — One species (Esox reticulatus) is of common occur- 
rence along the Atlantic coast and also in the fresh-water streams of the south- 
ern interior portions of the country. The pike of the Great Lakes belongs to 
the species Esox lucius Linnaeus. It is found in the fresh waters of North 
America, Europe, and Asia, but is not found on the Pacific coast except in 
Alaska. It reaches in some cases a large size, having been found as much as 
4 feet in length and weighing 40 to 50 pounds. The Kankakee in northern 
Indiana is a well-known fishing ground for this species of pike. 

Composition 0} Pickerel. — Edible portion: 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 7q.68 percent 

Protein, 18.64 " 92.15 percent 

Fat, 50 " 2.48 

Ash, 1. 18 " 5.80 " 



134 FISH FOODS. 

The flesh of the pickerel, as is seen, is almost a pure type of protein. The 
fat falls to an insignificant quantity, being only about half as much as the ash. 

Wall-eyed Pike. — The wall-eyed pike or pike perch {Stizostedionvitreum) 
is a fish most abundant in Lake Champlain, the Great Lakes, and in eastern 
Canadian lakes; it occurs also in certain small lakes and streams in the upper 
Mississippi valley. In some localities it is known as the salmon or jack 
salmon, but of course these are misnomers. 

Composition. — • 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 75-71 percent 

Protein, i9-03 " 79-31 percent 

Fat, 4.07 " 16.74 " 

Ash, 1. 19 " 4.92 " 

Common Pompano. — The pompano (family Carangidae) is one of the 
food fishes which is most highly esteemed along the Gulf coast. It has been 
found as far north as Cape Cod on the Atlantic coast, but does not occur in 
sufficient numbers to make it of any economic value as a food fish north of 
Florida. It is taken chiefly in the Gulf waters. The average weight of the 
pompano is from 2 to 3 povmds, though very much larger examples are some- 
times found. As a food fish there is none that is regarded more highly than 
the pompano, especially when it is eaten fresh from the water and prepared 
in the manner of the creole cooks of New Orleans. 

Composition. — • 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 72.78 percent 

Protein, 18.65 " 72-37 percent 

Fat, 7.57 " 24.46 " 

Ash, I. GO " 3.82 " 

These data show that the edible portion of the pompano is valued both for 
its protein and its fat. The latter exists in quantities of approximately one- 
third of the former. It is not so much its nutritive value which makes the 
pompano desirable as a food fish but the extreme delicacy of flavor and the 
richness of its taste. It does not bear shipping well, and therefore is found 
in its greatest perfection only near the place where it is taken. 

In New Orleans and in Florida the pompano is one of the principal food 
fishes furnished by the high-class hotels and restaurants to their guests. 

Red Snapper. — The red snapper (Lutianus aya) is the most noted fish 
of all the snapper family (Lutianidae), although there are others which are 
highly prized, such as the gray snapper. It sometimes reaches a length of two 
or three feet and a weight of from 10 to 35 pounds. It is particularly abundant 
in the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico and off the west coast of Florida. 
The red snapper bears shipping better than most of the Gulf fish, and Pensa- 
cola is one of the principal points where the fish are packed in ice as soon as 
possible after capture and dispatched to northern markets. 



SALMON. 135 

Composition. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 78.46 percent 

Protein, 19.20 " 9I-7S percent 

Fat, 1.03 " 4.70 " 

Ash, 1. 31 " 6.05 " 

This is another one of the fishes in which the edible portion is almost exclu- 
sively protein, the fat appearing only in small quantities. 

Rock Bass; Redeye; Goggle-eye (Amhloplites rupestris). — The rock 
bass is a very common fish particularly abundant in the fresh waters of the 
northern central portions of the United States. It is the fish which the Ameri- 
can boy, living near small streams, most delights to catch. The size of the 
rock bass varies largely according to the magnitude of the body of water in 
which it lives. The average weight of the fish in streams of ordinary size is 
probably about a pound, though often it is considerably more. The rock 
bass has been propagated to some extent by the Bureau of Fisheries and has 
been introduced into waters where it formerly did not occur. 

Salmon. — The salmon is one of the most important food fishes of the 
United States. It belongs to the genus Orcorhynchus. The five species of 
this genus are, in America, confined to our Pacific coast. Of these species the 
one known as blueback or sockeye is found most abundantly in the Fraser 
and Columbia rivers and in Alaska, the silver salmon in Puget Sound, the 
chinook salmon in the Columbia, and the dog salmon along the coast from Cali- 
fornia to Bering Sea. The salmon begin running early in the spring and the 
early run is considered of greater value than the later. The habits of the 
salmon in the deep waters of the ocean are not very well known. It is only 
when they come into fresh water for spawning purposes that their life his- 
tory can be well studied. It is believed, however, that they do not go 
very far from the shore. The run of salmon on the Pacific coast usually 
begins about the latter part of March and lasts through the spring and greater 
part of the summer. On account of the great abundance of these fish on the 
Pacific coast and the distance from large markets the canning industry has 
developed with great rapidity. In fact on the Pacifie coast the product of 
salmon fishing is devoted almost exclusively to canning purposes. In the 
canning of salmon no particular care is taken, and perhaps none at all to 
designate upon the can whether its contents are of the early salmon or the 
later, less valuable run. It is claimed by many authorities that the salmon 
of the Pacific coast of America, taken all together in their relation to the 
economic problem of fish food, are the most important and valuable fish in 
the world. 

Composition of a Pacific Coast Species. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 63.61 percent 

Protein, 17.46 " 52.31 percent 

Fat, 17.87 " 49.05 " 

Ash, 1.06 " 2.92 " 



136 FISH FOODS. 

Composition oj Atlantic Salmon. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 63.61 percent 

Protein, 21.60 " 61.45 perrcnt 

Fat, 13.38 " 36.88 

Ash, 1. 41 " 3.81 " 

The above data show that the Pacific salmon are richer in fat than the 
Atlantic salmon. In fact in the edible portion of the fish the fat is almost 
as great as the protein. 

Another species of Pacific salmon is the humpback salmon {Oncorhynchus 
gorbuscha), which appears in great abundance in the rivers of Alaska, but not 
every year, — usually coming in larger quantities in alternating years. As a 
fish to be eaten fresh, this is one of the very best of the salmons. Owing to 
the pale color of the flesh, this species does not hold as high a rank for canning 
purposes. It cans well, however, and the product is very palatable and doubt- 
less very nutritious. The trade-name of the canned product is " pink salmon," 
as its flesh is of a paler color than that of the chinook salmon or red salmon. 
Another species is known as dog salmon. It is found in considerable abun- 
dance from California northward to Bering Strait, spawning usually late in the 
fall. It is considered as the least valuable for food purposes, although it is 
now coming to be used very extensively by freezing, in which form it finds a 
ready market both in this country and abroad. When canned it is put on the 
market as "chum." Its chief interest at the present time is on account of the 
fact that it is sometimes sold under the names of better species. 

Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha). — This species is also 
known as quinnat, king, Columbia river, and Sacramento river salmon. It is, 
next to the sockeye, the most important of all salmon in commercial value. 
The individuals of this species reach a larger size than those of any other. 
They have been known to vv'eigh 90 pounds, and fish of from 40 to 60 pounds in 
weight are not infrequently taken. The average weight of the king salmon 
which are captured in the Columbia river is probably not far from 22 pounds, 
while those that run further south, for instance in the Sacramento river, average 
16 pounds. 

Another species, known as silver salmon {Oncorhynchus kisiitch), also has 
a number of other names, mostly of Eastern or Russian origin. It is quite an 
important member of the genus and its average weight is about 5 pounds. It 
is very valuable as a food fish, only the Chinook and blueback salmon going 
ahead of it. It is also a species which bears shipment in a fresh state very well. 
The silver salmon resembles very closely the Chinook, but is easily distinguished 
therefrom by experienced fishermen. The canned product of this species is 
usually put on the market as "medium red" or "coho" salmon, names which 
have now come to ha^■e a definite meaning and are perfectly understood by the 
trade. 



SALMON OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. I37 

The Sockeye or Blueback Salmon {Oncorhynchus nerka). — This is the 
species which has the greatest commercial value and forms a large part of the 
catch of the Pacific coast. It is the most abundant of all the species of 
salmon in Alaska. Its flesh has a rich red or "salmon" color, and lends 
itself admirably to canning ])rocesses. In palatability and attractiveness as a 
canned product it is not inferior to any, unless, possibly, it is the Columbia 
river chinook. 

Canning of Salmon. — The canning of salmon is one of the most important 
of the fish industries of the United States. The immense coast line possessed 
by the United States on the west, which is so vastly extended by the Alaskan 
coast and Aleutian Islands, affords the most extensive fisheries of salmon in the 
world. As has already been stated, there are no large markets in that region 
in which the fresh salmon can find a purchaser. The fish, therefore, must be 
neglected as a food product or else prepared in some way to enable them to be 
shipped to great distances. Probably the most unobjectionable way is by 
canning. The principles of the canning of salmon are not different at all from 
those which underhe the sterilization of any kind of food. The establishments 
in which the canning takes place are perhaps the most extensive in the world. 
The prime necessity in these case- is to secure complete sterilization. In the 
case of fish any failure to secure the proper sterilization is the more reprehen- 
sible, because fish decompose so readily, forming fermentative products which 
are extremely poisonous. Cases of poisoning from eating canned salmon 
have been reported, and in some cases they may prove fatal. Every can of 
salmon which is to be eaten ought to be examined carefully in order to see if 
there are any incipient signs of decomposition. A bad smelling or otherwise 
imperfect can should be rejected without question. Only the fish which is 
perfectly fresh to the taste and odor and which gives no signs of any kind of de- 
terioration should be eaten. When properly prepared, canned salmon affords a 
delicacy as well as a food product which can hardly be too highly prized. 

Composition 0} Canned Salmon. — Mean of three samples. Water-free 
substance : 

Protein, 53-52 percent 

Fat, 40.52 " 

Ash, 6.24 " 

The Salmon of the Atlantic Coast. — As has'already been noted, the 
Pacific salmon belong to a different genus from the common Atlantic salmon,— 
Salmo salar. There is a very close resemblance between the two genera, and 
the common name "salmon" is applied to the individuals of each. The 
Atlantic salmon is a fish which has been known from the earliest time. The 
Roman people became acquainted with it in the early history of the Republic, 
and especially when they conquered Gaul and Britain. It is found distributed 
over the whole North Atlantic coast, but especially the northern portion 



138 FISH FOODS. 

from Massachusetts northward. The salmon extends, as far as observations 
have been made, beyond even the Arctic circle, and the same species is found 
upon the western and northern shores of Europe. The salmon enters the St. 
Lawrence and has been found as far up as Niagara Falls. Our principal 
fisheries for this species are in Maine and in Canada, Nova Scotia, and Nevv' 
Brunswick. They do not extend southward beyond the Delaware and have 
rarely been found in that river. The shad and salmon were particularly 
abundant in early colonial days. The shad were so abundant that they were 
not regarded as useful for food purposes, but their value as a fertilizer was 
taught to the whites by the Indians. Salmon, apparently, were equally 
abundant, and it was considered an affront to offer salmon more than twice a 
week even to servants. In this respect they were on the same plane as the 
diamond back terrapin and canvas Ijack duck, which were so abundant, in 
those days, that they were a drug on the market. The salmon enters the 
fresh-water streams for the purpose of spawning. The eggs are largely laid 
late in the fall, and in that case do not hatch until the next spring. The 
Atlantic salmon often reach a very large size. Individuals have been known 
to weigh from 40 to even 80 pounds. The average weight of the salmon taken 
in Maine waters is about 10 pounds each. Another valued specimen of salmon 
is known as the Sebago salmon (Salmo sehago), from the lake in which it occurs. 
It is a fresh-water fish, having been doubtless landlocked in some way after 
originally entering from the sea. Still a third species is the famous ouananiche 
(Salmo ouananiche), inhabiting the waters of the Lake St. John region north of 
Quebec. 

Composition of Atlantic Salmon. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 76.74 percent 

Protein, 18.52 " 79.13 percent 

Fat, 3.60 " 15.32 " 

Ash, 1. 14 " 4.93 

Composition of Sebago Salmon. — - 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 78-54 percent 

Protein, 17-24 " 78.00 percent 

Fat, 2.98 " i,S-74 " 

Ash, 1.24 " 5.76 " 

The above data show 'a striking difference in the composition of the edible 
portions of Pacific and Atlantic salmon. This difference is shown chiefly in 
the relative proportion of fat. In the Pacific salmon the fat approaches in 
quantity the protein, while in the Atlantic salmon the protein is much 
greater than the fat. The Atlantic salmon is used chiefly in the fresh state 
for two reasons, first, because the catch is very much smaller than that of the 
Pacific species while the markets are very much more numerous and very much 
larger; second, because it is commercially more profitable to dealers in the 



EUROPEAN SARDINES. 



139 



fresh state. In Europe and Scotland the salmon is constantly used in a fresh 
state during the whole of the summer and a dinner is scarcely considered com- 
plete without it. It is also very commonly used at luncheon. It is generally 
eaten cold and offers a food product of high palatability and great nutritive 
value in so far as the protein is concerned. Eaten with plenty of potato, as it 
usually is, it forms a reasonably well-balanced ration. The American visitor 
who is not used to eating salmon every day is likely to find its constant occur- 
rence upon the English table in the summer to be a bit trying to his taste. 

Sardines. — The sardine and herring belong to the same family — in fact, 
small herring along the coast of Maine are put up as sardines. The sardines 
are very closely related to the herrings, but there are rather important differ- 
ences. The European species, which is known as the sardine, is the Sardinia 
pilckarda, and does not occur on the coast of the United States. The species 
existing on the Pacific coast is known as the California sardine (Sardinia 
ccerulea). It is quite abundant on the California coast and spawns in the open 
sea. It resembles very strongly the European sardine, but has no teeth. The 
Spanish sardine (Sardinia pseudoJiispanica) is found rather abundantly in 
Cuba and is often carried northward in the Gulf Stream as far as Woods Hole or 
Cape Cod. It is about 8 inches in length and of high food value, resembling 
very closely the European sardine. There has been a good deal of discussion as 
to whether or not small herring which are packed as sardines in the United 
States should be allowed, under the food laws of the various states and of 
the United States, to be sold by that name. The answer to this is that any 
deception in the label should be avoided. The preservation and packing of 
different fish in the same way gives no right to a common name. The true 
ethical principles of trade require that seme qualification of the name be se- 
cured, in order to protect the name sardines, which is reserved exclusively for 
the species Sardinia pilcharda. 

Composition of Canned Sardines. — 

Water, ... .. 56.37 percent 

Water-free substance, 43-f'3 " 

Protein, 24.87 " 

Fats, J 2.71 " 

Ash 5.00 " 

Sodium chloric!, 0.61 " 

The above data are based upon the analysis of the sample after the oil 
has been separated by drainage. 

European Sardines. — The sardine is eaten fresh along the Spanish and 
French coast, where they are taken in great abundance and form a delicious 
food in this condition. The number which is given to a single individual 
is quite generous, as the writer has had served him on the Mediterranean 
coast in Spain as many as twenty fresh sardines at one order. The number, 



I40 



FISH FOODS. 



however, was not found any too large when the palatability of the product 
was taken into consideration. Sardines are preserved by salt and smoke and 
particularly by packing in oil. 

Method 0} Packing in Oil. — The sardines after proper cleaning are heated 
in oil for the purpose of sterilizing them. Olive oil is usually employed for 
this purpose, though some packers prefer to heat the fish in peanut oil, claim- 
ing that it gives them a better color. There seems to be, however, no sufficient 
ground for this claim. The peanut oil is probably used simply because it 
is cheaper. "When the fish are thus sterilized and thoroughly cooked they arc 
placed in boxes in the well known manner in which they are found and 
covered with oil, sealed, and, if necessary, again sterilized in order to prevent 
decomposition. Olive oil is the oil usually employed for packing purposes, 
though cheaper grades of edible oil are very commonly found in sardines. 
The substitutes for olive oils which are usually employed are peanut oil, 
cottonseed oil, and sesame oil, either single or mixed. When the sardines 
have been previously boiled in a cheaper oil and then packed with olive oil 
the olive oil will be contaminated with the cheaper oil used in the boiling. 

Adulteration of Sardines. — As indicated above, the chief adulteration of 
sardines is in the misbranding respecting the nature of the fish and the oil 
used in packing. A young herring packed in the manner of a sardine properly 
demands a special label instead of the word "sardine" alone. A difference 
respecting the misbranding in regard to the oil employed is avoided by the 
statement on the package of the character of the oil used. The phrase "Sar- 
dines packed in oil" should be construed always to mean in the highest grade 
oil, that is, olive oil. This phrase, however, is usually employed when inferior 
oils are used. Inasmuch as oil is not the name of any individual product 
but of a large class of products, including that of both animal and vegetable 
origin, it is generally held that the term "oil" is not a sufficient indication 
of the character of the oil used. In all cases the packages should designate 
the special kind of oil used in the preparation. The addition of chemical 
preservatives to sardines in so far as the author knows, is not practiced, at 
least not to any appreciable extent. 

The French Fisheries. — The sardine fisheries in France are mostly off the 
coast of Brittany, and are subject to many very serious fluctuations. For 
instance, the present year, 1906, has been one of disaster to the French fish- 
eries. What is the cause of the disappearance of the pilchard (the true sardine) 
is not known. The fishermen think that large fish have driven the small ones 
either into the Bay of Biscay or the Mediterranean, or even to the west shores 
of Africa. The fish are thought to originate in the Mediterranean, and their 
name is derived from the fact that they were originally found in great quantities 
off the coast of Sardinia. WTien the spring comes and the fine weather is estab- 
lished they migrate first along the coast of Spain, finally reaching the French 



SHAD. 141 

coast some time during the month of May. By this time the young fish are 
nearly grown to a proper size for catching. The fishing, ho\ve^•er, does not 
really begin until July and is usually finished by No\ember. The little town of 
Concarneau is the seat of these fisheries. About two Uiousand small boats 
go out from this town and at or near this place are also the large canneries 
and packing establishments. The fishing grounds are about five miles from 
the coast and the small boats sail out from two to four o'clock in the morning. 
The fishing is by means of nets and a very important part of the work is the 
spreading of the bait upon the surface of the water to attract the fish. The 
principal bait or roqiie is the roe of the cod, which sometimes reaches a price of 
$60 per barrel. Sometimes a single boat will use from 30 to 40 barrels of bait. 
. Only the most skilled fisherman, usually the master himself, is allowed to 
distribute this precious material. As many as one hundred thousand fish 
have been caught in the net, though this magnitude of catch is, of course, 
exceptional. When the fish are brought ashore they are counted into baskets, 
about 200 to a basket, and those unfit for use are thrown out. They are taken 
to the canneries as quickly as possible to be cleaned, boiled, dipped in oil, and 
then hermetically sealed in a tin in which they are sent into commerce. 

Adulteration. — The chief adulteration of sardines is found in misbranding 
as to country of origin. The French catch has the highest reputation of any 
in the world and for this reason the label is often made to represent the fish 
as of French origin when in reality they are caught on the shores of Spain 
or of other countries. Formerly the fish were brought in great numbers from 
the Spanish coast into France. They were naturally much deteriorated 
in transit. Nevertheless they were tinned and marked as of pure French 
origin. This practice has now been forbidden by law in France. The 
Norwegian fish known as Sprotten (sprats) on the German and Holland coasts 
are packed as sardines and sent into this country as sardines. 

Scup. — The scup is a fish (family Sparida?) which is taken in great abun- 
dance on our Atlantic coast in the summer and autumn and is brought in im- 
mense quantities to the market. The proper name of the fish is Stenotomus 
chrysops. 

Composition.^ 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 74-99 percent 

Protein, 18.52 " 75-33 percent 

Fat, 5. 1 1 " 19-25 " 

Ash, 1.38 " 5.64 " 

The flesh of this fish is a better balanced ration than that of the red snapper, 
the proportion of fat being much larger. 

Shad. — One of the most important food fishes on the x\tlantic coast is 
the shad. It is found along the whole Atlantic coast, coming into fresh water 
for spawning, where it is caught for food purposes. The shad begin to appear 



142 FISH FOODS. 

in the streams of the south Atlantic coast early in the winter and as the spring 
advances they go northward. They appear in the Potomac in April and May, 
and later in the Delaware and Connecticut rivers and other fresh-water streams 
further north. The fish is, therefore, to be had fresh upon the market over a 
long period of time. The common shad is known scientifically as Alosa 
sapidissima (Wilson). As a result of the work of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries 
the shad has been intr.oduced into the waters of the Pacific coast where none 
was found originally. The shad fry were first introduced into the Sacramento 
river and afterward into the Columbia river. The environments on the 
Pacific coast were found congenial. The fish soon found grounds on which 
they could spawn, and they have spread over almost the entire length of the 
Pacific coast. It has, of late, become a very common and abundant food 
fish on the Pacific coast and has lost none of its palatability by transplant- 
ing. Science has not been able to ascertain anything of very great interest 
respecting the life of the shad in the sea. When they leave the rivers they 
practically disappear, and are not known again until the next spawning 
season returns. For spawning purposes the shad prefer a water temperature 
of from 55 to 65 degrees. Whenever the temperature goes above the latter 
figure they begin to disappear. The males and females go in separate schools. 
The males usually precede the females. It is stated by Jordan and Ever- 
mann that of 61,000 shad received at the Washington market from March 
19 to 24, 99 percent were male. As the season advanced the males became 
very much less frequent and at the end extremely scarce. The U. S. Bureau 
of Fisheries has taken especial pains to increase the number of shad in all 
waters. During the spring of 1900 there were artificially planted in the Atlantic 
coast streams over 240,000,000 young shad. One fish often contains as 
many as 150,000 eggs. The average number, however, is about 30,000. 
Shad roe is the most valuable part of the fish and brings a much higher price 
in the market than an equal weight of fish itself. Planked shad is one of the 
greatest delicacies of the Washington markets. At JSIarshall Hall, opposite 
Mount Vernon, there are given a great many shad bakes during the season. 
Oak wood is placed in long lines and burned, — oak planks are set up on each 
side of the line of burning wood, inclined at an angle of about 60 or 70 degrees. 
On these oak planks the shad are cooked, held usually by driving a nail 
through the head, — the cut surface being exposed to the heat of the burning 
fire. In addition to being cooked in this way the fish absorbs a small amount 
of the empyreumatic odors of the burning wood. During the baking the 
shad are treated from time to time with melted butter. There is no other 
way which a shad can be cooked which renders it so delicious as by this primi- 
tive method. The shad, from an economic point of view, is third in impor- 
tance in the United States, only the salmon and the cod exceeding it in value. 
The annual catch of shad on the Atlantic sea coast numbers from 10 to 20 



THE SHEEPSHEAD. I43 

million, weighing from 40 to 60 million pounds and worth from one and one- 
half to two million dollars. 
Composition oj Shad. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 70.62 percent 

Protein, 18.56 " 64.36 percent 

Fat, 9.47 " 31-9.3 " 

Ash, 1.35 " 4.62 " 

Of the whole weight of shad the average edible portion amounts to 52.35 
percent, and the refuse, counting the bones, skin, and entrails is 47.65 per- 
cent. 

Shad Roe. — The eggs of shad, as has already been mentioned, are regarded 
as the most valuable portion of the fish. Roe shad also are more highly 
prized as a food fish than the male shad. As a result, roe shad sell for 
a much higher price on the market than the male shad. The eggs are quite 
small, and as has already been said, occur in immense numbers, the average 
number to a fish being about 30,000. 

Composition oj Shad Roe. — 

Water, 71.2 percent 

Protein, 23.4 " 

Fat, 3.8 

Ash, i.6 " 

Aside from the water of the roe, it is noticed that by far the most abundant 
component is the protein. This, of course, is what would be expected of an 
egg product. The protein is a little more than six- times as great as the fat. 
The ash contains large quantities of phosphorus, which exists in the original 
egg, largely in the form of lecithin, in which state it is regarded as most 
valuable for nourishing the phosphatic tissues of the body. Shad roe is eaten 
almost entirely in the fresh state. It does not produce a pickled or cooked 
product of anything like the value of the sturgeon eggs. So far as the author 
knows no form of shad egg preparation similar to caviar is on the market. 

There are three species of shad in America, but the only one of great im- 
portance is the common Atlantic shad which has been described. 

The Sheepshead. — This abundant and important food fi5h exists in large 
numbers along the Atlantic coast. It also belongs to the Sparidae and its scien- 
tific name is Archosargus prohatocephaJus. This species is found from Cape 
Cod to Texas. It is especially found in the vicinity of oyster beds, where it is 
destructive to the oysters. It is quite abundant in the Indian river, being, next 
to the mullet, the most frequently found fish in those waters. Though strictly 
a salt-water fish, it often runs up into fresh waters. The fish is distinguished 
by the number of broad silvery colored bands extending around its entire body. 
The average weight of the sheepshead is three or four pounds, though oc- 
casionally a fish three or four times that size is captured. 



144 FISH FOODS. 

Composition of SheepsJiead. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 75-55 percent 

Protein, i9-54 " 83.47 percent 

Fat, 3.69 " 13.59 " 

Ash, ; 1.22 " 5.14 " 

The Smelt. — The smelt belongs to a family which has a number of species^ 
some of which are very abundant in Europe, where they are highly prized 
even to a greater extent than in this country for food. The smelt is a small 
fish, very long in proportion to its breadth. The American smelt (Osmerus 
mordax) is found very abundantly on the Atlantic coast north of New York. 
Although a sea fish, it often enters rivers and becomes landlocked in lakes. 
It is found abundantly in Lakes Champlain and Memphremagog and many of 
the New England and Nova Scotian lakes. The smelt in early times was a 
very abundant fish. 

Composition of the Smelt. — Edible portion: 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 79- 1 6 percent 

Protein, i7-37 " 84.31 percent 

Fat, '. 1.79 " 8.61; " 

Ash, 1.68 " 8.16 

These data show that the flesh of the smelt is very rich in protein, the fat 
falling to a very small proportion of the total edible substance. 

Spanish Mackerel. — This is a very highly prized fish and is eaten largely 
in the fresh state along the Atlantic coast. Its scientific name is Scomhero- 
moriis maciilatiis. The catch is subject to great variations. In early years 
the Spanish mackerel was scarcely known on our coast, but in the last forty 
years it has assumed considerable importance. Although more abundant 
than formerly it still commands a very high price. The weight of the full- 
grown mackerel is usually from five to eight pounds, though occasionally very 
large individuals are taken. Jordan and Evermann speak of one which was 
41 inches long and weighed 25 pounds. 

Composition. — Edible portion : 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 68.10 percent 

Protein, •. 20.97 " 67.25 percent 

Fat, 9.43 " 29.56 " 

Ash, 1.50 " 4.71 " 

In this fish it is seen that the fat is a little less than one-third the quantity 
of the protein. 

Sturgeon. — The sturgeon belongs to the family of Acipenseridre. They 
are large fishes frequenting the sea and also the fresh waters of northern regions. 
Most of the species are anadromous, entering fresh water and ascending the 
streams in spring. There are two genera belonging to this family and 20 
species that are well defined, although al)out 100 nominal species have been 



STURGEON. 



145 



described. The white sturgeon or Oregon sturgeon is found on the Pacific 
coast from Monterey north to Alaska. It ascends the large rivers during the 
spring, notably the Sacramento, Columbia, and I-'raser rivers. Some of them 
are very large and their value for food and commercial purposes has only been 
lately recognized. They are principally valuable, ho\ve\'er, for their eggs 
or roe, since it is from the eggs of sturgeon that caviar is made. The roe in 
the fresh state is worth from 25 to 30 cents a pound. The fresh fish are frozen 
and shipped to Eastern markets. 

The common sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) frequents the east and north 
Atlantic coast and ascends the rivers in the spring, especially the Delaware. 
The quantity of sturgeon taken, however, has constantly decreased for several 
years. The principal part of the caviar made in the United States is procured 
from the common sturgeon and the Lake sturgeon, which is found in the Great 
Lakes, the upper Mississippi Valley, and the Lake of the Woods. 

Preparation oj Caviar. — After the eggs have been removed from the fish, 
thev are placed in large masses upon a stand, the top of which is formed of a 
small-meshed screen. On the under side is placed a zinc-lined trough, 
about 18 inches deep, 2 feet wide and 4 feet long. The operator gently rubs 
the mass of eggs back and forth over the screen, whose mesh is just large enough 
to let the eggs drop through as they are separated from the enveloping mem- 
brane. They thus fall into the trough from which they are drawn otT into 
tubs through a sliding door in one end of the trough. After all the roe has 
been separated, the tub is removed and a certain proportion of the best Lunc- 
berg salt is added and mixed with the eggs by careful stirring with the hands. 
This is the most delicate part of the whole process, and the best results can 
be obtained by that proficiency which comes from long experience. After 
adding the salt, the eggs at first become dry, but in 10 or 15 minutes the salt 
has drawn from the eggs their watery constituents and a copious brine is 
formed, which is poured off when the tub becomes too full. The salted 
eggs are then poured into fine-meshed sieves which hold about 10 pounds 
each, where they are allowed to drain for 8 to 20 hours. The eggs have now 
become the ca\'iar of commerce, which is j)ut in casks or cans of various sizes. 

Composition oj the Flesh oj Sturgeon. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 78.71 percent 

Protein, 17-96 " S5.19 percent 

Fat, 1.90 " 8.90 " 

Ash, 1.43 " 6.72 

Composition oj Caviar.— 

Water, 66.05 Percent 

Protein, i4-37 " 

Fat, 8.97 " 

Ash, 7.26 " 

Undetermined, 3.35 " 

Of the ash, 6.16 parts of the 7.26 present are common salt. 



146 



FISH FOODS. 



Composition of the Eggs of Fish.— Attention has been called to the 
valuable food properties of the eggs of fishes. The roe of a number of fishes 
is celebrated both for flavor and food value. The two most important roes 
are those of the sturgeon, used in the manufacture of caviar, and the roe of 
shad, used principally in the fresh state. 

Composition of Roe. — The composition of shad roe, fresh sturgeon caviar, 
and pickled caviar is given in the following table: 



Shad roe, 

Fresh caviar, . . 
Pickled caviar. 



Water. 



Percent 

71-25 
56.97 
50.92 



Protein. 



Fat. 



Ash. 



Percent 
23-44 
27.87 
27.92 



Percent 
3-78 
2.85 

13-59 



Percent 

1-53 
2.31 

7-57 



The above data show a marked difference between the composition of 
shad roe and sturgeon roe, the latter being very much richer in fat and also 
containing a greater quantity of ash. The large quantity of ash in the pickled 
caviar is doubtless due to the common salt used in the curing. There is 
not a very great difference between the composition of the roe and that of 
the flesh of fish. The roe is essentially a nitrogenous food, also with a 
considerable quantity of fat and with a certain amount of mineral matter. 
It contains less water than the flesh of fish, and, therefore, pound for pound in 
the fresh state has a larger quantity of nutrients. Otherwise, for food pur- 
poses, there is but little difference. It is doubtless true, however, that the 
mineral matters of the roe are somewhat different from those of the flesh 
of fish in containing a larger quantity of organic phosphorus, in the form of 
lecithin. 

Striped Bass. — The striped bass or rock (Rocciis Uneatus) is a fish of the 
family Serranidae and quite common in the Potomac. It occurs commonly 
around the Atlantic coast. Its scientific name is Rocciis lineatus. It is taken 
in all waters along the coast from the Carolinas to New England, and espe- 
cially near the mouth of the Potomac and in Chesapeake Bay. It is a fairly 
common as well as one of the best food fishes at Washington and in many of 
the fish markets on the Atlantic coast. 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 77-7° percent 

Protein, 18.31 " 83.28 percent 

Fat, 2.83 " 12.50 " 

Ash, 1. 16 " 5.22 " 

Sole. — The term "sole" is applied here to certain species of flounders and 
the two terms are sometimes used synonymously. The true soles, however, 
of which there are several species, belong to a distinct though closely related 
family. The species of flounder to which the name " sole " is generally given 



TROUT. 147 

is Eopsetia jordani. It occurs along the Pacific coast from ^lonterey to Puget 
Sound. Large numbers are taken in Monterey Bay. The average weight 
of this "sole" is about three pounds. It is highly esteemed as a food fish. 
They are dried in great numbers by the Chinese, who suspend them by strings 
on a frame placed on the roofs of the houses, where, after they become dry, they 
strike against each other when moved by the wind, producing a sound which 
is something like that emanating from the lea-ves of a forest. 

Tautog. — The Tautoga onitis is one of the wrasse-fishes (family Labridic) 
and is abundant along the Atlantic coast from New Brunswick to the Carolinas. 
East of New York it is commonly called the "tautog." On the New York 
coast it is known as "blackfish," and further south as the "oyster fish." 

Tilefish. — The tilefish is interesting not because of its high food value but 
because of the fact that it was discovered by accident in 1879 when a fisherman 
off the coast of Nantucket captured 5000 pounds of a fish which was new to 
him. The species was also new to science. This fish disappeared as suddenly 
as it came and no more were caught until 1892. Since then they have been 
taken rather frequently. The tilefish reaches a length sometimes of three feet 
and a weight of 30 pounds. It is pronounced by experts to be the equal of the 
pompano. 

Trout. — Trout, of which there are many species, are greatly prized both 
on account of their value as game fishes, affording sport for anglers, and be- 
cause of their high palatable qualities. They belong to the same family as the 
Atlantic salmon and often it is difficult to distinguish by any of its common 
characteristics a trout from a salmon. This is especially true of trout of 
western America. The species of trout which are most highly prized on the 
Pacific coast are the cut-throat trout {Salmo clarkii), the rainbow trout (Sabno 
iridens), and the steel-head (6"(z/;;/o gairdncri). The familiar silver trout of 
Lake Tahoe is another closely related species. They are distinguished by a 
remarkable system of spots of a circular form, black in color, and of varying 
size. The Lake Tahoe trout which is commonly secured is not the same as the 
silver trout of Lake Tahoe but is of a little different character, and is also 
known as the Truckee Trout, "Pogy, " and "Snipe." It reaches a weight of 
from three to six pounds and is sometimes served on the dining cars of the 
Central Pacific Railway, in running through Idaho and into California. \'arious 
other species of the trout are found in Utah, in the Rio Grande and the Colo- 
rado, and in the lakes of Colorado. Perhaps the most important of these is the 
steel-head trout occurring along the Pacific coast. The rainbow trout is also a 
fish that is highly prized along the Pacific coast. The brook trout of western 
Oregon is also an important fish. 

The Trout of the Great Lakes. — The fish known as trout m the Great Lakes 
belong to a dift'erent genus from those already mentioned, namely, genus 
Cristiivmer. It has, however, the typical spots, which are of a grayish color 



148 FISH FOODS. 

instead of red or black like those of the other trout which have been 
mentioned. 

The principal species which abounds in the Great Lakes is the Mackinaw 
trout (Cristivomer namaycush) . It is also found in the large lakes from Maine 
westward to the Pacific ocean and even to northern Alaska. This is the largest 
species of trout. The average weight of the fish probably does not exceed 15 
or 20 pounds. Individual examples have been found weighing over 100 
pounds. There is only one common fish which exceeds it in weight, namely, 
the sturgeon. Next to the white fish it is the most important commercial fish 
of the Great Lakes. The supply of lake trout has been diminishing and the 
price increasing for several years. The spawning season of lake trout begins 
in September and continues until December. 

Composition of Lake Trout. — 

Feesh. Dry. 

Water, 69.14 percent 

Protein, 18.22 " 60.10 percent 

Fat, 11.38 " 36.80 

Ash 1.26 " 4.90 " 

Composition of Brook Trout. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 77-72 percent 

Protein, 18.97 " 86.62 percent 

Fat, 2.10 " 9.16 " 

Ash, 1. 21 " 5.39 " 

The above data show that lake trout hlis a flesh whicn approximates in 
composition that of Pacific salmon, being quite rich in fat, while the brook 
trout has a composition more like the Atlantic salmon, being very rich in pro- 
tein and poor in fat. Trout of all kinds are used practically in only a fresh state. 
The catch is not large enough to warrant the establishment of canning fac- 
tories and all that are caught in the northern and central northern lakes and 
streams find a ready market in a fresh state at much more remunerative prices 
than could be obtained by canning. It is always a fortunate circumstance 
when the condition of the catch and of the market are such as to enable the 
fish to be eaten as fresh as possible from the water. Fish is a kind of food 
which is never improved by keeping in any way and is at its best the minute 
the fish is taken from the stream. The brook trout do not belong to the same 
genus as the lake trout but to the genus Salvelinus. They have a general 
resemblance, however, to that genus. As a fish to be caught by the hook and 
as a victim of sport the brook trout perhaps occupies the highest place among 
the fish of the country; especially is it sought for in the mountain streams, and 
it occurs in most parts of the northeastern United States. It extends from 
Maine to northern Georgia and Alabama, especially in the Appalachian Moun- 
tains and west through the Great Lakes to the Mississippi, while in Canada it 
is found from Labrador to the Saskatchewan. 



WEAKFISH. 



149 



The brook trout has been especially cultivated by the U. S. Bureau of Fish- 
eries and introduced into waters in the United States where it is not found 
naturally. The season for spawning for the brook trout is in the autumn, 
when the water is growing colder, and continues from August to December, 
according to the latitude. In spawning time the fish come up into the 
smallest parts of the stream where shallow water can be found. The eggs 
remain until the next spring, when they are hatched. The brook trout 
varies greatly in size, according to the magnitude of the stream. In the 
small streams it weighs often less than J pound, while in large streams it 
weighs 2 or 3 pounds. The large trout has almost disappeared from the 
small streams as a result of the activity of fishermen. 

There are many other species of trout which are known in different parts 
of the country. For instance, the Dublin Pond trout of Dublin Pond, N. H., 
the Dolly Varden trout in the northern Pacific states and Alaska, the Sunapee 
trout in the northeastern states, and the Blueback trout in Maine. These 
fishes all have practically the same quality, varying only in minute details, and 
have the same value as a food. 

Turbot, — A species of halibut known as Greenland halibut {Reinhardtius 
hippoglossoides) is also known as turbot in this country. It occurs chiefly 
off the coast of Greenland, and is taken in the very coldest part of the year. 
The European turbot is Psetta maxima. 

Weakfish. — The weakfish belongs to the croaker family (Scisenidce) and 
has a high value as a food fish, the flesh being rich in flavor and very tender and 
easily disintegrated, from which quality it is believed the name "weakfish" is 
derived. The common weakfish is the species Cynoscion regalis. It is also 
known in some localities as the squeteague. The fish is rather long in pro- 
portion to its breadth and sometimes grows to a large size. Examples weigh- 
ing over 25 pounds have been captured. Very rarely, however, does a weakfish 
weigh more than 10 pounds, and the average is perhaps not more than one-half 
that. The weakfish is, particularly when young, a victim of the bluefish, and 
great numbers succumb to the ravages of its more powerful enemy. The 
weakfish is found over the entire length of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts as far 
north as the Bay of Fundy. The weakfish sometimes ascends the tidal waters 
and congregates around the river mouths, where the food is more abundant. 
While found on the markets in the North, it is more highh- prized in the 
southern markets. 

Composition. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 78.97 percent 

Protein, i7-45 " 84.63 percent 

Fat, : 2.39 " 11-37 " 

Ash, 1. 19 " 5.64 " 



J50 



FISH FOODS. 



The flesh of the weakfish, as shown by the above data, is one in which the 
protein exists in very much greater proportion than the fat. It is not so rich 
in protein, however, as some of the other species which have been men- 
tioned. 

Whitefisho — This fish occurs in large numbers in all our Great Lakes, and 
is an abundant article of food. Its scientific name is Coregonus clupeijormis. 
It inhabits the whole of the Great Lakes regions from Lake Champlain to 
Lake Superior. It does not occur in very great abundance, if at all, west of 
Lake Superior, although it has been reported to ha\'e been found in the fresh 
water lakes both to the north and west of that region. 

The common whitefish prefers the deep water of the lakes, coming only into 
shallow water near the shore at spawning time, which, in the Great Lakes, 
is from October to December. During the months of January, February, 
and March the fishing for whitefish is practically discontinued, since the 
fish at that time have returned to deep water and are not accessible. 

The size of the whitefish in the Great Lakes is not so great as the extent 
of water would indicate. Probably three pounds would be an average size, 
although the individual fish range from ij to 6 pounds. The weight rarely, 
however, exceeds 4 or 5 pounds. Occasionally whitefish have been found 
weighing as high as 20 pounds, but this is very rare. The whitefish reaches 
its full average size about the end of the fourth year. The number of eggs 
which are found in the female fish is not so large as in the shad, but usually the 
number does not fall below 10,000 and sometimes reaches as high as 75,000. 
The eggs are very small comparatively, and about 36,000 of them make a 
quart. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has done a great deal to increase the 
supply of whitefish by planting millions of whitefish fry in suitable water. 

Dijjercnt Species oj IVhitefisJi. — There are many species of whitefish be- 
sides the common whitefish which appear in the Great Lakes. Coulter's 
whitefish is found in the waters of British Columbia, but it is not distributed 
very widely throughout the country. The Rocky Mountain whitefish is very 
widely distributed, occurring in all suitable waters from the west slope of the 
Rockies to the Pacific. There is also a subspecies of this fish occurring in 
the headwaters of the Missouri river. Menominee whitefish occur in the 
lakes of New England, New York, and the Great Lakes, — it is also known as 
round whitefish, frostfish, shadwaiter, pilotfish, chivey, and blackback. 

Composition 0} Whilejish. — 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 69.83 percent 

Protein, 22.06 " 76.00 percent 

Fat,...! 6.49 " 21.51 

Ash, 1.62 " 5.36 " 



MARKETING OF FISH. I51 

Average Composition of Fislt.* — ■ 

Water, 76.06 percent 

Solids, 23.94 " 

Nitrogen, 3.51 " 

Phosphoric acid, 52 " 

Sulfur, 24 " 

Fat, 1.45 

Ash, 1. 21 " 

Protein, 21.92 " 

Fluorids in Fish. — Nearly all kinds of fish yield a distinct test for fluorin 
which is not to be mistaken for an adulteration. The fluorin is found nor- 
mally in the bones of the fish and sometimes in traces in the flesh. The addi- 
tion of fluorid as a preservative is highly reprehensil)le, and its presence is 
indicated by the increase in quantity. 

Marketing of Fish. — In the food act it is provided that no animals shall be 
used for food which have died otherwise than b}^ slaughter. Whether or 
not this would apply to fish is a matter of some doubt. Unfortunately fish, 
as a rule, are allowed to die by being deprived of oxygen, which they get from 
the water as it passes over their gills. The common practice is to take the 
fish for commercial purposes in seines or other gear and allow them to die, as it 
were, by suffocation. The greater number of fish exposed upon our markets 
ha\e died in this w^ay and are then packed in ice and kept until sold. The ideal 
way to treat fish would be to transfer them from the seine to a pool of water, 
fresh or salt, in which they are kept alive until they are wanted for cooking. 
This method is practiced in some very high-grade restaurants and hotels 
where the diner may pick for himself from the pool the fish he desires to eat. 
It is evident that for commercial purposes where a cheap food is desirable a 
method of this kind could not be practiced. It is a question which the hygien- 
ist as well as the practical man should consider, that is, whether or not it is 
possible to slaughter the fish and, as soon as they are taken, dress them, pack 
their carcasses in ice, and in this w^ay deliver them to the markets. Where 
fish are used for canning or salting purposes they are often slaughtered as soon 
as caught. This is particularly true of herring captured in the Potomac and 
Susquehanna rivers. It is an interesting problem to study whether or not the 
flavor and character of the flesh are impaired by the suffocation process 
subsequent to their capture. In all cases except in cold weather, the fish after 
capture, no matter whether they are allowed to die by suffocation or slaugh- 
tered, should be packed in ice and kept until the market is reached, which 
should be at as early a date as possible. Fish are never so good as when 
fresh and the fresher the better. 

Cold Storage. — Fish is a product which is often found in cold storage in 
large numbers and kept there for a long time. The usual problem attending 

* Average analysis of cod, halibut, bass, etc., used at the hygienic table of the Bureau 
of Chemistry. 



152 FISH FOODS. 

the cold storage of food is even more important when appHed to fish. In 
cold storage fish are frozen solid and kept in this state until ready for con- 
sumption. Just how long the palatability and wholesomeness of fish can be 
preserved when frozen solid has not been determined. It follows logically 
that the colder the temperature the less the degree of deterioration, but it 
does not follow logically that this temperature can be maintained indefinitely 
without injuring the character of the product. One thing appears to be 
certain, namely, that the consumer is entitled to know whether in any given 
case the fish he purchases is a fresh or a cold storage article. At the present 
time, in so far as I know, there are no national, state, or municipal laws whereby 
this fact can be ascertained. Without raising the question of comparative 
value or palatability there is no doubt but what the consumer is entitled to 
know the character of the fish he purchases. 

Canning Fish. — Allusion has already been made to the practice of can- 
ning fish, especially salmon. Great precautions must be used in cases of 
this kind, since fish is a food which tends to develop poisonous principles 
incident to decomposition. Canned fish, therefore, must be thoroughly ster- 
ilized so that no fermentative action tending to produce ptomain poison can 
possibly take place. It should be the duty of inspectors of food to frequently 
examine packages of canned fish to determine, first, by the external appearance 
of the can, and, second, by opening a certain number of them, whether any 
decomposition has taken place. Too great care cannot be exercised in this 
matter, since dangerous and often fatal results follow the consumption of 
spoiled fish. 

Drying and Salting Fish. — The preservation of fish by pickling, salting, 
drying, and smoking is a great industry and produces some of the most pala- 
table products. Mackerel, herring, and cod are types of fish which upon 
proper curing make a most delectable dish. Nothing but encouragement 
should be given to industries of this kind, but in order that they may be of the 
most value they should be conducted properly with due regard to hygienic 
principles and for the sole purpose of making a wholesome and palatable 
product. 

Adulteration of Fish Products. — Attention has already been called to 
the adulteration of salmon by cg-nning an inferior grade or even a different 
kind of fish under the name of a better species. The same remark may be 
made respecting all fish, hake, haddock, and cusk being often offered as cod. 
In the case of sardines a similar practice is in vogue, and the small herring 
which are captured off the coast of Maine are often sold under the name of 
sardines. The substitution of one variety of fish for another, however, is 
injurious only in the way of fraud, the substitute fish presumiably being of equal 
wholesomeness to the other under whose name it is sold. On the con- 
trary, the form of sophistication which permits the introduction of deleterious 



CLAIVIS. 



153 



substances into fish food is highly objectionable from the dietetic point of 
view. Following the general principles of nutrition, all chemical, non-condi- 
mental preservati\es are to be rigidly excluded from fish products. This 
rule excludes boric acid, borax, benzoic acid and benzoates, sulfites, formal- 
dehyde, and all other forms of chemical preservati\es. 

When fish are packed in oil the character of the oil used should be made 
known to the consumer. Especially is this true if from the locality where 
the fish is preserved and the general method of packing the consumer is led 
to believe that a high-grade oil such as olive oil has been used. 

Value of Fish as Food. — From the statements which have been made in 
connection with fish in particular and the analyses which have been given 
it is seen that fish is a food of a peculiarly nitrogenous character. The 
edible portions, exclusive of water, are at least three-fourths, and probably 
more, composed of protein. The other edible nutritive product is fat or 
fish oil. The mineral nutrients compose the remaining edible portion of 
fish after the protein and fat are considered. The mineral portions of fish 
cannot be regarded as not nutritious since they contain phosphoric acid 
and lime, which are essential ingredients of food. The flesh of fish, however, 
as it has been seen, is not a complete ration, but is lacking in carbohydrates, and 
for this reason fish should be eaten with potatoes, rice, or other highly starchy 
foods. The value of fish as a food is unquestionable and its more general 
consumption would doubtless prove beneficial. 

Those who live in the interior of large and extensive regions where fresh 
water fish are not very abundant do not appreciate the value of fish as food 
as do those who live upon the coasts washed by salt water and near the interior 
fresh waters where an abundant supply of fish is secured. 



SHELLFISH. 

Clams. — Clams are shellfish which, though not so extensively used as the 
oyster, are valued food products. The clams of commerce are of two kinds. 
The species known as long or soft clam is abundant on the New England coast, 
and is of considerable commercial importance both fresh and as a canned 
product. This is the clam used at clam bak.es, for which the New England 
coast is famous. Its technical name is Mya arenaria. 

The other species, the round or hard clam, northward known as quahog, 
is the most common clam of the markets south of New York. Its scientific 
name is Venus mercenaria. 

A very small round clam is known as the little neck. This has a flavor which 
is extremely delicate and it takes the place, in the warm months, of the blue 
point oyster on the menus of the hotels and restaurants. The clam may be 
considered as a supplemental shellfish to the oyster, being most delicious and 



154 FISH FOODS. 

most abundant during the closed oyster season. The average weight of the 
round clam is about 60 grams, of which about one-fourth is flesh, one-fourth 
liquid, and one-half shell and refuse. There are many specimens very much 
larger than this but the weight is given for those visually eaten. 
Composition of Clams. — Edible portion: 

Water, 78-57 percent 

Protein, 1 4.86 " 

Fat, 1.78 

Ash, 2-49 " 

Undetermined, 2.30 " 

The liquid which escapes upon the opening of the shell is composed chiefly 
of water and salt and its composition is as follows: 

Water, 96.02 percent 

Protein, 65 " 

Fat, None 

Common salt, 2.81 " 

Undetermined, 52 " 

The flesh of clams, it is seen, is not very different from that of fish in general. 
It is composed chiefly of water and of the nutrients the protein is the pre- 
dominating constituent. The ash content is somewhat higher than is the 
case with fish. 

If the flesh and fluid substance of the clam be considered together the 
composition of the whole mass is represented by the following data: 

Water, 86. 1 1 percent 

Protein, 8.71 " 

Fat, 1. 01 " 

Ash, 2.63 " 

Undetermined, 1.54 " 

Composition 0} Water-free Substance of the Flesh. — 

Protein, 69.37 percent 

Fat, 8.32 

Ash, 1 1 .64 " 

Undetermined, 10.67 " 

Composition of the Dry Substance of the Liquid Portion. — 

Protein, 16.37 percent 

Fat, 10 " 

Ash, 70.41 " 

Undetermined, 13-12 " 

Composition of the Dry Substance of the Flesh and Liquid Together. — 

Protein, 62.81 percent 

Fat,: 7-30 " 

Ash, 18.92 " 

Undetermined, 10.97 " 



CRABS. 155 

The Lobster (Ho mams americaniis). — The lobster is a crustacean which 
occurs along the northern Atlantic coast. Formerly it was so very 
abundant that it was almost a drug on the market. In the last quarter 
of a century the increase in the consumption of the lobster has been 
more rapid than the increased growth, so that the price has become higher 
and higher; and this, to a certain extent, is limiting the consumption. The 
coast of Maine is especially the fishing grounds for the American lobster, 
though it is found much further south and also in great abundance further 
north. The lobster varies greatly in size. The law, at the present time, 
prevents very young lobsters from being sent into commerce. They are 
usually from 10.5 to 15 inches in length, though occasionally examples of enor- 
mous size are taken. The edible portion of the lobster is the liquid and the 
flesh of the body, claws, and tail. Only about one-half the weight of the lobster, 
including the liquid, therefore, is edible. The rest is refuse. In a lobster 
weighing a thousand grams (2.2 pounds), five hundred grams (i.i pound) 
will be the average edible portion, and the other half the refuse and loss. 
The average lobster of the present day, perhaps, weighs scarcely two pounds, 
though in former times the weight was very much greater because the younger 
and smaller lobsters were not sent to the market. The color of the lobster 
as it comes from the water is dark green, almost black at times. Heat changes 
the color of the shell, so that after boiling or baking the lobster becomes 
red. The flesh of the lobster is decidedly sweet, owing to the large quantity 
of glycogen which it contains. There is only one kind of meat that is eaten 
which approaches the lobster in its content of glycogen, and that is horse 
meat. 

Composition oj the Lobster. — Edible portion: 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 84.30 percent 

Protein, 11-63 " 74.06 percent 

Fat, 1.82 " 11.62 " 

Ash, 1.63 " 10-38 " 

Glycogen, 62 " 3.94 " 

Crabs. — The crab is a shellfish very highly prized along the whole of the 
Atlantic coast. Numerous species of crabs are used for food. These are used 
in two forms — as hard-shelled or soft-shelled crabs. The species most valued 
is Callinectes hastatus. It is very abundant on the middle and south Atlantic 
coast. Crabs are quite abundant on the Pacific coast also. About 44 per- 
cent of the total weight of the crab is edible and 56 percent shell and refuse. 
In the edible portion about 77 percent is water and 23 percent solid matter. 

Composition oj the Water-free Substance of the Crab. — 

Protein, 72.56 percent 

Fat, 8.55 

Ash, 13-64 " 



156 FISH FOODS. 

The flesh of the crab is, therefore, essential!}' a nitrogenous food, containing 
only a small quantity of fat. A considerable portion of the ash is common 
salt. 

Crawfish. — The crawfish may be regarded as a fresh- water lobster. It 
is found practically over the whole of the United States in the fresh waters 
but is not used to any extent for food purposes, except on the Pacific coast. It 
contains even a less proportion of edible matter than the lobster. The refuse, 
shell, etc., form about five-sixths of its weight. In the edible portion the water 
constitutes 81.22 percent, while the solid matters are only 18.78 percent. 

Composition of the Water-free Substance of the Crayfish. — 

Protein, 85.19 percent 

Fat, 2.45 " 

Ash, 6.98 " 

Canned Lobster, Clams, and Crabs. — As in the case of oysters, there is 
a large industry in the United States engaged in the canning of the flesh of 
lobsters, clams, and crabs. The same precautions should be observed in 
the eating of these canned products as those mentioned in the case of salmon. 
Numerous instances of illness and sometimes of death have been recorded as 
the result of eating these canned products which have been imperfectly ster- 
ilized. When the flesh is canned immediately after the capture of the animal, 
before any incipient decomposition has taken place and when the sterilization 
is perfect, the canned product can be eaten without fear. Where the health 
of the people is so seriously involved, the factories where these products are 
prepared should be carefully inspected either by the municipal, state, or 
federal authorities. All material used in canning which is not perfectly 
fresh from the water is to be rejected and the processes employed in the 
preparation and sterilization must be those which will effectively secure a 
complete immunity from subsequent fermentation and the development of 
ptomain products. 

Composition 0} Canned Lobster {Dry Substance). — ■ 

Protein, 81.46 percent 

Fat, 4.64 

Ash, - 11.23 " 

As seen from the above the composition of the dry substance in canned lobster, 
except content of water, is not perceptibly different from that of the fresh 
sample. 

Composition 0} the Dry Substance 0} Canned Crabs. — 

Protein, 79- lo percent 

Fat, 7.55 

Ash, 9.68 

Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris). — The shrimp is a highly valued article of 



AQUATIC REPTILES. jey 

food, especially when it can be had fresh or properly canned. It has been a 
practice to ship shrimps in bulk preserv^ed with sulfites or boric acid. This 
is a most reprehensible form of adulteration. 

Canned Shrimps.— In the total dry edible portion, including solids in 
the liquid contents of the can, are found: 

Protein, 86.89 percent 



Fat 



3-44 



Crude ash, ; 8.84 

In edible portion (flesh plus liquids) : 

Water, 70.80 percent 

Water-free substance, 29.20 " 

Protein, 25.38 " 

Fat, i.oo " 

Crude ash, 2.58 " 

Extractives, 0.24 " 

Nitrogen, 4.06 " 

Total edible portion, 100.00 " 

The above data show that the shrimp in the canned state has less water in 
it than in the fresh state, and contains one-fourth of its weight of protein. 

Aquatic Reptiles. — All forms of turtle may be used for edible purposes, 
both of the fresh-water and salt-water species. Both the turtle and terrapin 
are amphibious animals; that is, they can live either in the water or on the 
land. Among the turtles the marine variety known as the green turtle is most 
highly prized for food purposes. Its Latin name is Chelonia mydas. It grows 
sometimes to an enormous size, weighing several hundred pounds, and speci- 
mens weighing 50 and 100 pounds are not unusual. It is utilized chiefly for 
making soup, and green turtle soup is considered of high quality by experts. 
The fle.sh is also edible, and in the making of some varieties of green turtlesoup 
pieces of the flesh are included. 

Composition of the Green Turtle. — The edible portion of the green turtle 
has the following composition: 

Water, 79-78 percent 

Protein, 19-83 " 

Fat, 53 " 

Ash, 1.20 " 

The edible portion of the green turtle is not \ery large in porportion to 
its weight, as it forms only from 20 to 24 percent of the whole weight of 
the turtle. 

Among the reptiles there are several aquatic species which are used as food. 
The most noted of these is the diamond-back terrapin, which is found in the 
salt-water bays, lagoons, and marshes of our Atlantic coast from New Jersey 
to Texas. Its center of greatest abundance is in Chesapeake Bay. There is 
no fish or other water animal that has a higher ^'aIue for edible purposes than 



158 FISH FOODS. 

the terrapin. The extreme deUcacy of its flavor, the richness of its aroma, and 
its easy digestibihty give to it a rank which perhaps no other usual food product 
possesses. In addition to this the increased scarcity of the terrapin, especially 
the more famous variety of it, namely, the diamond-back, has gradually in- 
creased the cost until at the present time the terrapin is eaten only by the rich. 
In the United States it exists along the whole Atlantic coast from New York 
southward and also along the Gulf coast. Formerly it was most abundant on 
the Maryland coast, but the nearness of this field to the great markets of the 
country has resulted in such a depletion of the stock as to make the terrapin 
very scarce. Many attempts have been made at artificial growing of terrapin 
and these have been more or less successful, but have not met with the pro- 
nounced success which was expected. The enclosure in which the terrapin 
are kept, viz., the "crawl," is a feature in the artificial cultivation or breeding 
of these marme vertebrates. It is to be hoped that greater success in the future 
will attend the artificial breeding of terrapin, since the natural stock seems well 
on the way to extinction. 

Composition oj the Terrapin. — Edible portion: 

Fresh. Dry. 

Water, 74-47 percent 

Protein, 21.23 " 83.13 percent 

Fat, 3-47 " 13-59 " 

Ash, I-02 " 3.99 

The Mussel. — The mussel may be described as a fresh-water oyster. 
It occurs in almost all parts of the United States in the fresh waters and in 
external appearance resembles to some extent the oyster, but the shell is 
usually smoother. In the mussel is often developed concretions of the 
carbonate of lime in a particular form known as pearls. In fact the chief 
value of the mussel is in the supply of pearls which they furnish, since their 
flesh, although often eaten, is not considered very palatable nor desirable. 
Pearls may be found in mussels in every locality, but in some regions they 
are more abundant than in others, — for instance, the mussels of Wisconsin 
are especially noted for the occurrence of the pearls. Pearls are also fre- 
quently found in oysters, but by no means so frequently as in the mussel. 

Composition oj the Mussel. — The edible portion of the mussel forms about 
one -half its weight. 

Water, 78-64 percent 

Protein, 12.51 

Fat, 1-67 " 

Ash, 1-73 ^^ 

Undetermined, ■ 5-45 

Oysters. — Oysters belong to a class of animals known as mollusks. 
They grow, in salt or brackish water and are found along almost the whole 



OYSTERS. 159 

of the coast of the United States. They exist in the greatest abundance 
along the coast in the vicinity of Long Island Sound, Norfolk, Virginia, along 
the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, off the coast of Mississippi, Louisiana, and 
Texas, and along the Pacific coast from San Francisco to the northern limits 
of Washington. 

Size. — The size of an oyster depends greatly upon its food and also upon 
its species. There are some varieties which at a given period of growth 
are naturally very much larger than others. The larger variety grows near 
Norfolk and along the Gulf coast. A smaller species is especially abundant 
on the Pacific coast, though a number of very large specimens of oysters 
have been found on that coast. 

Age. — An oyster is eaten at any time after two years. Oysters, however, 
three or four years old are, perhaps, in all respects the best. The age is 
determined largely by the appearance of the shell, experts being able to 
practically determine the age of an oyster by an examination of the shell. 

The oyster grows within a shell which is composed almost exclusively of 
carbonate of lime. The periphery of the shell is ovoid in shape, irregular, 
and the surface, especially of old oysters, is corrugated, rough, and unattractive. 
The interior of the shell is smooth and generally white, but sometimes has 
a blue or reddish tinge. The shells of edible oysters vary in size from 2 to 
6 inches in length and from 2 to 4 inches in width. The oysters sold in the 
market are known by various names, usually derived from the location from 
which they come. A small variety distinguished by a blue color on the 
inside of the shell is known as blue points. The real blue points come only 
from Long Island. Another variety named Rockaway is also a Long Island 
variety, and should come exclusively from Rockaway or vicinity. Shrewsbury 
is another highly prized variety from the neighborhood of Shrewsbury, New 
Jersey. Buzzards Bay, James River, Norfolk, Lynnhaven, Rappahannock, 
Stony Creek, Saddle Rock, etc., are names commonly found in the trade. 
Unfortunately, the name of the location is not always an indication of the 
actual source from which the oysters may have come. For instance the term 
"blue point" is now very commonly given to small oysters not exceeding 2 
or 2^ inches in length with a correspondingly diminished breadth. On 
the contrary "saddle rock" is a name given to very large oysters no mat- 
ter from what region they may come. It is a common practice to separate 
the oysters taken from one location into groups of similar size and attach to 
each group a special name which may or may not be indicative of location. 

Cultivation of Oysters. — The natural beds of oysters are rapidly exhausted 
by the free fishing which is in some cases allowed, and the supply must be 
kept up by proper cultivation. Oyster farming has become a great industry 
along all parts of the coasts where the conditions are well suited to culture. 
The ideal conditions are inlets where the oysters are protected from the action 



l6o FISH FOODS. 

of ocean waves and where abundant food can l)e derived from the low marshy 
grounds in the vicinity. The laws in force in the states protect the oyster 
farms from poachers and deeds are given for oyster beds which are beyond 
the low water line. The conditions of culture vary in various states. The public 
beds are also protected by law in many states and incipient war is sometimes 
carried on between the authorities of one state and the poachers from other 
states. Maryland, especially, has laws of a very strict character respecting 
the taking of oysters, and the state furnishes armed forces for the protection 
of public beds. 

Season for Oysters. — The best season for oysters on the Atlantic coast of 
the United States extends from September first to May. These dates 
may also be applied to oysters of the Gulf and Pacific coasts. It is com- 
monly said that all months which have an "R" in them are suitable for 
eating oysters. In point of fact oysters are eaten the year round, especially 
on the Atlantic coast, though to a very limited extent during the spring and 
summer months. Those who own their own oyster beds are privileged to 
take oysters at all seasons, and it is not unusual for a restaurant to furnish 
oysters during the whole year, those in the closed season being derived from 
private beds. 

Life of an Oyster. — After an oyster is taken from its bed it may be kept 
alive for a long time at a temperature which does not rise too high nor sink 
too low. The best temperature for keeping oysters alive is about 40 to 50 
degrees Fahrenheit. The oysters should be protected from the sunlight 
by a proper covering in a cool place and kept moist with sea water or brine 
which is sprinkled over them in such a way as to come in contact with each 
oyster in the heap. Oysters kept under these conditions often remain in an 
excellent state for consumption for a week or ten days or even longer. If 
such conditions are maintained oysters may be shipped in bulk to all parts of 
the country in cars kept cool, and this is the best way in which to distribute 
oysters for consumption in a fresh state. 

The treating of oysters with fresh water in order to swell them and thus 
make them appear larger and plumper than they really are is a treatment 
which is reprehensible in every respect. Not only does it deceive the custt)mer 
in regard to the size of the oyster but it deprives the oyster of its proper taste 
and flavor. "Soaked" oysters quickly lose their flavor, whereas the oysters 
kept as above described and sprinkled with brine retain their natural iiavor 
and odor. The objection to the transportation of oysters in this way is that 
the shell usually weighs mam' times more than the oyster and the same rate of 
freight must be paid upon it as upon the oyster itself. Nevertheless, the 
fact remains that fresh oysters are best immediately after removal from 
the shells. As soon as the shell is removed and the oyster killed by this 
removal it begins to deteriorate and in a short time its flavor and aroma are 
impaired. It is a common practice in many cities, even where oysters are 



OYSTERS. l6l 

delivered fresh daily from their beds, to open large quantities of them and put 
them in tubs and sell them from these tubs to customers. It thus happens that 
customers often buy oysters that have been opened 24 hours or more and which 
are naturally of a very inferior flavor. Strict regulations in regard to the use 
of fresh oysters, favoring their being opened when they are readv for consump- 
tion or requiring that they should be kept in a condition of palatability and 
properly cooled until ready for consumption, should be observed. 

Shipment of Opened Oysters. — Opened oysters are shipped extensi\-ely to 
all parts of the country. After remo\al from the shell the (n'sters are washed 
to remove the natural water, since this becomes ropy during shipment. Thev 
are then packed in wooden tubs of \arious sizes, a piece of ice adcied, covered, 
and delivered to the fast express or freight ser\ice. The shipment of shucked 
oysters to which water has been added either direct!}' or in the form of melted 
ice is deemed unlawful, because a substance, /. e., water, has been mixed and 
packed with the oysters so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect the quality 
or strength. It is highly advisable to ship shucked oysters surrounded by 
ice but not in contact with it. Oysters thus shipped retain their flavor and 
palatabiiitv to a remarkable degree and are not contaminated by ice. 

Proportion of Shell and Oysters. — The following illustration (Report of the 
U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1888, page 784) shows the 
relative proportion of the flesh, liquid, and refuse for two or three varieties 
of oysters: 

Name: Oysters (" E!ast Rivers"). 

Locality: Cow Bay, Long Island Sound, New York. 

Received: April 8, 188 1, from E. G. Blackford. 

Description: Length, si to 5^ inches; breadth, if to 3^ inches. 

Weighings in Preparation for An.'Vlvsis. 

Grms. Lbs. Oz. Perceim. 

Flesh, 558.0 I 3.6 10.27 

Liquid, 543-7 i 3-i 10.01 

Refuse (shells, etc.), 4,^'>4-7 9 7-2 78.86 

Loss, 47.3 .. 1.7 .86 



Total, 51 oysters, 5>433-7 n i5-6 



100.00 



Name: Oysters ("Sounds"). 

Locality: Princess Bay, Staten Island, New York. 

Received: November 30, 1881, from Dorlon & Shaft'er, New York City. 

Description: Thirty oysters in shell. 

Weighings in Preparation for .\nai.vsis. 

Grms. Lbs. Oz. Percknt. 

Flesh, 384.0 .. 13.5 8.24 

Liquid, 436.0 .. 15.4 Q.35 

Refuse, 3,816.0 8 6.6 81.87 



Loss, 



25.0 . . 0.9 0.54 



Total, 30 oysters, 4,661.0 10 4.4 



100.00. 



The above data show that for 100 pounds of shelled oysters only about 
10 pounds of meat are found. There is also about 10 pounds of liquid cr 
juice that escapes when the oyster is opened. There is an average of 80 
pounds of shell and other refuse. When it is remembered that, as will be 



l62 



FISH FOODS. 



shown in the table given below, in lo pounds of the meat there is over 80 
percent of water it is seen that the actual nourishment contained in 100 
pounds of oysters is reduced to a little over i pound. There is a general 
opinion that oysters are a very nutritious food and this is true in so far as the 
nitrogenous element of food, that is, the protein, is concerned, and in propor- 
tion to the quantity present. As a nourishing food the oyster cannot be con- 
sidered as of any very great importance. It must he confessed that it will 
continue to be used, as it has been in the past, practically as a condimental food 
substance and not solely to satisfy hunger nor provide heat and energy for the 
body. 

Process of Floating. — Reference has been made to the practice of soaking 
shell oysters in fresh water for the purpose of making them more plump 
and increasing their weight. This, in the language of the fisherman, is 
called "floating," "drinking," or "laying out." By this process the body of 
the oyster affects a plumpness and largeness which materially increases its 
selling qualities, as it increases its weight and size and, therefore, the profits of 
the dealer. The principle of this process depends upon the fact that when a 
soft substance like an oyster, containing a mineral salt in its composition, is 
brought in contact with water, a process of diffusion takes place which is 
known in chemical physics as osmosis, whereby water passes through the cell 
walls and enters the cells of the oyster and the mineral substance thereof 
is forced out into the external water. Larger volumes of water pass into 
the cells than accompany the particles of mineral matter to the outside of the 
cells and the result is a swelling of the oysters and consequent increase in the 
size and weight by the addition of pure water, but at the expense of the 
natural salt, mostly chlorid of sodium or common salt, which the oyster 
contains. 

The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has been experimenting to show the change 
which takes place with the following results: — 



STATISTICS OF WEIGHTS, 


ETC., 


OF 


SPECIMENS OF OYSTERS. 




James River.* 


Potomac River.* 


Constituents. 


From beds. 


From floats. 


From beds. 


From floats. 




Lab. No. 82; 31 
oysters. 


Lab. No. 83 
oysters. 


; 34 


Lab. No. 8s; 35 
oysters. 


Lab. No. 84; 41 
oysters. 


Shell contents : 

Flesh (body) 

Liquids (liquor) .... 


Grms. 
312.5 
181.5 


Lbs. Oz. 

Il.O 

6.4 


Grms. 

412.5 
20S.0 


Lbs. 


Oz. 
14-5 
7-3 


Grms. 

302.5 
282.0 


Lbs. Oz. 

10.7 

lO.O 


Grms. 

415-5 
264.3 


Lbs. Oz. 

14.7 
9-3 


Total 


494.0 


1 1.4 


620.5 


I 5.8 


584-5 


I 4.7 


679-8 


I 8.0 


Refuse : 

Shells 

Lossf 


2778.0 
21.0 


6 2.0 
0.8 


2976.0 
17-5 


6 


0.6 


3017.0 
22.5 


6 10.4 
0.8 


3386.0 
15-2 


7 7.4 
0.5 


Total 


2799.0 


6 2.8 


2993-5 


6 


9-7 


3039-5 


6 II. 2 


3401.2 


7 7-9 


Total weight of 
specimen . . . 


3293.0 


7 4-2 


3614.0 


7 


15-5 


3624.0 


7 15-9 


4081.0 


8 15.9 



* Transplanted to beds in New Haven harbor, Connecticut, in April, and taken for 
analysis the following November. 

■j" Loss in opening and weighing, chiefly water. 



COMPARATIVE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF OYSTERS BEFORE AND 

AFTER "FLOATING." 



Constituents of Oysters. 



Ill whole specimen . 
Shell contents : 
Flesh .... 
Liquids . . . 



Total shell contents 



Refuse : 

Shells 

Loss in preparation for analysis 



Total refuse 

Total constituents, shell contents, and refuse . 

In flesh {body) : 

Water 

Water-free substance 



Total flesh 



In water-free substance : 

Nitrogen 

Protein (nitrogen X 6.25) 

Fat (ether extract) 

Ash 

Carbohydrates, etc. (by difference) 



Total water-free substance 

In liquids : 1 

Water 

Water-free substance ... 



Total liquids , 



In water-free substance : 

Nitrogen 

Protein (nitrogen X 6.25) .... 

Fat (ether extract) 

Ash 

Carbohydrates, etc. (by difference) 



Total water-free substance 



In total shell contents, flesh, and liquids: 

Water 

Water-free substance 



Total shell contents 



In water-free substance : 

Nitrogen 

Protein (nitrogen X 6.25) 

Fat (ether extract) 

Ash 

Carbohydrates, etc. (by difference) 

Total water-free substance . . . . 



In ii'hole specimen : 
Shell contents : 

Water 

Water-free substance 

Total shell contents 
Refuse 



Total shell contents and refuse . 



James River Oysters 

Transplanted to 

New Haven. 


Potomac River Oysters 

Transplanted to 

New Haven. 


As taken 
from beds. 


As taken 
from floats. 


As taken 
from beds. 


As taken 
from floats. 


No. 82. 


No. 83. 


No. 8s. 


No. 84. 


Percent. 
949 

5-51 


Percent. 

1 1. 41 
5-76 


Percent. 

8.35 
7-78 


Percent. 

10.18 
6.48 


15.00 


17.17 


16.13 


16.66 


84.36 
0.64 


82.35 
0.48 


83-25 
0.62 


82.97 
0.37 


85.00 


82.83 


83.87 


83-34 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


77-99 
22.01 


82.77 
17-23 


77.90 
22.10 


82.06 
17-94 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


1.70 
10.63 
2.61 
2.21 
6.56 


1.40 
8.79 
1.91 
1-55 
4.9S 


1.65 
10.31 

2-33 
2.17 
7.29 


1-45 
9.09 

1.93 
1.58 
5-34 


22.01 


17.23 


22.10 


17-94 


94-74 
5.26 


95.22 

4.78 


94-99 
5-01 


95-69 
4-31 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


0.31 
1-95 
0.04 

2-54 
0-73 


0-34 
2.09 
0.13 
1.42 
1. 14 


0.29 
1. 81 
0.02 
2.47 
0.71 


0.33 
205 

O.OI 

1.19 
1.06 


5.26 


4-78 


5-01 


4-31 


84.15 
15-85 


86.95 
13.05 


86.14 
13-86 


87.36 
12.64 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 


1. 19 
7-44 
1.66 
2.32 
4-43 


1.05 
6-54 
I-31 
1-50 
3-70 


0.99 
6.20 
1. 21 
2.32 
4-13 


1.02 

6.37 
1. 18 

143 
3.66 


15.85 


13-05 


13.86 


12.64 


12.62 
2.38 


14-93 
2.24 


13-89 
2.24 


14-55 
2. II 


15.00 
85.00 


17.17 
82.83 


16.13 

83.87 


16.66 
8334 


100.00 


100.00 


100 00 


100.00 



163 



164 



FISH FOODS. 



COMPARATI\E PeRCF,NTAGE COMPOSITION OF OySTERS BEFORE AND AfTER " FLOAT- 
ING." — {Continued.) 



Constituents of Oysters. 



hi whole specimen: 
Shell contents ■ 

Nitrogen 

Protein (nitrogen X 6.25) 

p-at (ether extract) 

Ash 

Carbohydrates, etc. (by difference) 



Total water-free substance 
Water 



Total shell-contents 



James River Oysters 

Transplanted to 

New Haven. 



As taken 
from beds. 



No. 82. 



0.18 
1. 12 
0.25 
0.35 
0.66 



As taken 
from floats. 



No. 83. 



Potomac R iver Oysters 

Transplanted to 

New Haven. 



As taken 
from beds. 



No. 8s. 



0.18 
1. 12 
0.22 
0.26 
0.64 



2.24 
14-93 



0.16 
1. 00 
0.20 
0.37 
0.67 



2.24 
13-89 



16.13 



As taken 
from floats. 



No. 84- 



0.17 
1.06 
0.20 
0.24 
0.61 



2. II 

14-55 



Result of Treatment. — As shown by the data the first result is one which 
would naturally be expected, namely, that the total weight of the oyster thus 
inflated with water is increased relatively to the total weight of the shell 
since no change takes place in the weight of the shell during floating. The 
gain of weight in the oyster is due to the absorption of the water, although 
there is a loss of mineral salt. The average gain of the oyster was, in round 
numbers, lo percent. The danger of infecting oysters thus treated with 
any germs, which may be present in the water or ice used, should also be 
taken into consideration. 

In respect of the composition of the oyster itself when subjected to floatmg 
the chief change is in the increase of the water content. As has already been 
said the process of floating is fatal to the flavor and palatability of the product. 

Adulteration. — The chief adulterations of oysters are the "floating" above 
described and the treatment of the "shucked" oysters with formaldehyde, 
boron compounds, and other preservatives to keep them from spoiling. These 
processes are thoroughly reprehensible and are rapidly disappearing. The 
consumer who lives near the source of supply should never eat any but freshly 
shelled oysters and those at a distance confine themselves to the properly 
prepared and shipped article. The chief delight of the epicure is the fresh- 
ness, and not the quantity of nourishment of this justly prized bivalve. 

Average Composition of Fried Oysters: 

Water, 60.08 percen^ 

Solids, 39-92 " 

Nitrogen, 1.56 " 

Phosphoric acid, 42 

Sulfur, 19 " 

Fat, 9-48 

Ash, 1.77 

Protein, 0-73 " 

Carbohydrates by difference, 18.33 



ANIMAL OILS. 1 65 

ANIMAL OILS. 

The same distinction is made between oils and fats from animal products 
as has been made for the vegetable preparations further on. An animal 
fat remains solid or semisolid at the ordinary temperature of the living room. 
\n animal oil, on the other hand, is one which at ordinary temperature is 
a liquid. Animal oils, as a rule, are not used for edible pur])oses directly, 
but are used to some extent in cooking, and to a large extent as medicinal 
food. Inasmuch as these oils are used for medicinal food purposes, those 
which are most important in this use may be very properly described in this 
manual. As these oils are derived both from sea and land animals they 
are often conveniently divided into marine animal oils and terrestrial animal 
oils. There is also a marked difference as a rule between the oils of marine 
origin and those of terrestrial origin. The oils of marine origin, as a rule, have 
a very high iodin number while the animal oils of terrestrial origin have 
an iodin number not much greater than the fats from which they are derived. 
This distinction corresponds somewhat closely to those vegetable oils which 
belong to the drying and non-drying variety. The iodin number represents 
the percentage of iodin absorbed by a unit weight of substance. If one gram 
of an oil absorb 0.67 gram of iodin, the iodin number is 67. The marine oils 
correspond to the dry vegetal)le oils and the terrestrial oils to the non-drying 
vegetable oils. While this difference is one which is marked, it does not always 
exist in each individual case. 

Marine Animal Oils. 

The marine animal oils may be conveniently divided into fish oils, liver 
oils, and blubber oils. Of these the liver oils are the most important from 
an edible point of view or a medicinal edible point of view. The fish oil 
and blubber oil are used chiefly for illuminating and other technical purposes. 

Fish Oils. — These are obtained by rendering from all parts of a fish where 
fat exists. The herring, sardine, salmon, and the menhaden are the fish 
which are chiefly used for getting oil of this kind. The fish oils have very 
much improved in quality since the steamer has taken the place of the 
sail boat for gathering the fish. During the days of the sail boat the fish 
were often kept for ten days after seining before they were brought ashore. 
The decomposition which took place would naturally affect the oil. At the 
present day the steamers fishing close to the shores deliver their products 
much more frequently, often the same day they are caught, and thus a better 
quality of oil is produced. In this country menhaden is the chief fish used 
for obtaining oil. The scientific name of menhaden is Brevoortia tyranniis. 
These fish appear in enormous quantities around the Atlantic coast from 
May until November. It is estimated that nearly one-half milHon tons have 



IC6 FISH FOODS. 

been taken of these fish during a season. Menhaden oil is rarely if ever used 
for edible purposes. It is used principally in the leather trade and sometimes 
in the adulteration of cod liver oil made in Newfoundland. 

Sardine Oil. — Sardine oil is principally prepared in Japan from the Japan 
sardine (Clupea sardinus). It is not used to any extent for edible purposes. 
It is also prepared to some extent in the boiling of sardines in France pre- 
paratory to packing in oil. 

Salmon Oil. — This oil is obtained in large quantities on the Pacific coast. 
It is one of the fish oils which has an agreeable odor and taste and, therefore, 
can be used for edible purposes. It has a specific gravity at 15 degrees of 
about .926 and its iodin number is about 160. 

Cod Liver Oil. — The most important of all the animal oils for food pur- 
poses is the oil which is obtained from the liver of the cod {Gadus callarias). 
Cod liver oil is valuable for food purposes not on account of its odor and 
taste, which are usually quite disagreeable, but by reason of the specific effect 
which it is often said to exercise in cases of emaciation and general disorder 
of the functional activities of the body. It is a food or medicine, whichever 
it may be best called, which is highly prized in tuberculosis and similar diseases. 
The oil is chiefly prepared in the Loffoden Islands. Different classes of oil 
are prepared which are differentiated chiefly by their color, the lighter the 
color the higher the quality of the oil. The chemical composition of cod 
liver oil is extremely complex, many different kinds of substances having 
been found in it by various authorities. The probability is that many of 
these supposed substances are only mixtures of others. Yet it cannot be 
denied that the number of chemical compounds occurring in cod liver oil is 
very much greater than that which occurs in ordinary oils. Both the medici- 
nal and food values of the oil are often attributed to these bodies which 
occur in minute quantities. 

Properties. — Cod liver oil at 15 degrees has a specific gravity of .922. Its 
iodin number varies very greatly but is always high, ranging from 150 to 
180. Its refractive index is also very high, namely 1.47. 

An important constituent of cod liver oil is cholesterol. Cod liver oil 
contains naturally a small quantity of iodin and this natural compound of 
iodin is one of the properties to which much of its medicinal virtue has been 
attributed. The quantity present is extremely minute, and probably never 
exceeds .002 of one percent. 

Adulteration of Cod Liver Oil. — Owing to its increasing price cod liver oil 
has been subjected to many forms of adulteration. The chief adulteration 
consists in the admixture of fish liver oil of lower quality or the use of blubber 
oil. Seal and whale oils have been used very extensively in the adulteration 
of cod liver oil. Japan fish oil and, in fact, all other fish oils which are of 
a character not to disguise the properties of cod liver oil have been used. 



BLUBBER OIL. 1 67 

It is evident that it is with extreme difficulty that the presence of these adul- 
terants can be detected, especially if they are used in small quantities. The 
only certain method of guarantee of the purity of a cod liver oil is in the proper 
inspection and control of the manufacturing works. The livers of many 
other kinds of fish are employed in the manufacture of cod liver oil, but the 
other varieties have little value as compared with the cod liver oil itself and 
they are probably used almost exclusively in the adulteration of the genuine 
article. The Norwegian cod fish has been said to give a much better oil than 
those coming from the Atlantic coast of America. This is true only of the 
low grade American product; the higli grade is as good as the Norwegian. 

Blubber Oil. — Blubber oil includes the oils made from seals, w^hales, 
turtles, etc., and is used exclusively for technical purposes, unless surreptitiously 
placed in cod liver oil as an adulterant. 



PART IV. 

MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND 
OLEOMARGARINE. 



MILK. 
Limitation of Name. — By the term "milk," unless qualified in some 
way, is meant a lacteal secretion of the healthy cow, free of colostrum and of 
standard quality. If the milk of other mammals is meant the name of the 
class of animal is used in connection with the term, such as ewe's milk, goat's 
milk, etc. Milk is one of the most important articles of commerce and, bv 
reason of its composition, high nutritive character, and easy digestibility, it is 
not only the natural food of infants but a most important food for children 
and adults. It is also an indispensible food in many, if not most, cases of 
disease where nutrition is impaired. In some cases life may often be sustained 
over a critical period by the use of milk as a food where other forms of food 
would fail of digestion and prove injurious instead of beneficial. The dis- 
cussion of milk as infants' and invalids' foods is found in Part X. 

Average Composition of Milk. — Perhaps there is no food substance which 
has been subjected to so man}' and such severe anahtical tests as milk. Hun- 
dreds of thousands of analyses ha\'e been made in all civilized countries, 
not only of the milk of the individual cow but of herds of greater or less size. 

There is a great \ariation in the composition of milk of different breeds 
of cattle and also of different indixiduals of the same breed. For instance, the 
Holstein breed of cattle affords a milk with a very low content of fat, some- 
times as low as 3.25 percent, and in individual cases lower. On the other hand 
the Jersey breed of cattle affords a milk of a very high content of fat, some- 
times reaching as high as 6 percent, and in individual cases very much higher. 
The content of the nitrogenous element in milk is more stable than that of 
fat and the common content of casein in milk ranges from 2J to 3J percent. 
The sugar in the milk is usually the complementary substance with the fat, 
diminishing in relative proportions as the fat increases and vice versa. The 
average content of sugar in cow's milk is approximate!}' 4 percent. The 
content of mineral substances in milk is also quite constant, being about 0.70. 
The ash contains the phosphoric acid which is one of the essential food com- 
ponents of milk. A milk of fair average quality contains 12 percent of 
solids and 88 percent of water. This is an expression for milk during the 

i6q 



tyo 



MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 



various seasons of the year and from all breeds and kinds of cows. The 
influence of season has much to do with the quantity of milk produced. It is 
always greater in the spring and summer months, when the cows are turned 
out to pasture and the growth on which they feed is unusually succulent. 
The increase in volume is not attended with a proportionate increase of solids, 
and thus the percentage of solids in spring and summer milk is less than that 
in the winter milk unless the cows are particularly well fed during the winter 
on a generous diet, including large quantities of roots. 

The character of the milk is greatly influenced by the environment in 




Fig. 13. — Cow Stables, Mapletown Farm, Simnkk, Washington. 



which the cow lives. The stable in which the cow is kept should be clean, 
well ventilated, and protected against extreme changes in temperature, thus 
being cooler in the summer than the hot air on the outside and much warmer 
in the winter. An excellent arrangement of the stables to secure cleanliness 
and good ventilation is shown in Fig. 13. Cows should be supplied with an 
abundant quantity of pure water and should not be allowed access to stagnant 
pools when pasturing in the summer. Every animal giving milk should be 
examined from time to time by a competent veterinarian to determine, by the 
injection of serum or otherwise, whether or not the animal is afflicted with 
tuberculosis. Every animal infected with tuberculosis should be separated 
from the herd and destroyed. Tuberculosis is an infectious disease and may 



PREPARATION OF MILK. I7I 

spread from a single cow to every one in the herd. It is still by some authori- 
ties claimed that there is no authentic case of transmission of bovine tubercu- 
losis to the human system. Other authorities hold that such transmission is 
possible, even if it has not been proven in a particular case. Since experts 
disagree on this point the same rule is applicable here as in other cases of the 
same kind, namely, where experts disagree on a point relating to the public 
health the benetit of the doubt, if any, should be given to the public, and the 
advice of those experts followed which is the most radical respecting the 
protection of health from infection of any kind. It would be difficult to prove, 
for example, in any case of tuberculosis in man that it had been contracted 
from the sputa of tuberculosed patients, yet because it is possible, in the 
opinion of many experts, that such infection and transmission of disease can 
take place, it is the part of wisdom to guard against it. 

It is, I think, a statement which will be accepted by all that it is possible 
in this country to secure and keep a sufficient number of healthy cows to give 
the milk supply of the nation. Therefore, it is the duty of the state, either by 
municipal, state, or federal inspection, to eliminate, as far as possible, and, if 
necessary, at the expense of the state, every diseased animal from the dairy 
herd. The farmer whose herd becomes infected through no fault of his can 
justly claim a compensation for the destruction of his animals for the common 
good. There is, perhaps, no more important point connected with maintaining 
sanitary conditions than the proper ins])ection of the dairy, ^^•hether furnish- 
ing milk for family use or for s:de. It is the plain duty of e\er\- municipality 
and state to prohibit the sale of milk to its citizens from dairies which are 
not periodically and frequently subjected to the most rigid expert inspection. 
Such inspection would not only secure the health of the animals but tend 
directly toward the cleanliness of the dairy. Only by the exercise of unusual 
care is it possible to keep milk from becoming contaminated. 

Preparation of Milk. — Every part of the animal, especially the udders, 
should be kept scrupulously clean by proper currying and washing. The 
milk should be collected in vessels with as small an orifice as possible. As 
soon as drawn the milk should be strained and artificiall}' cooled to a tempera- 
ture of at least 50 degrees F., if not lower. A convenient a])paratus for 
cooling the milk is shown in Fig. 14. In this condition, without being exposed 
to infection and being protected at everv point bv closed vessels, stoppered 
when necessary by sterilized cotton, the milk is conducted into sterilized 
bottles and again stoppered with a sterilized cork of some dcscri])tion. The 
milk is kept cold until delivered to the consumer and should be kept cold by 
the consumer until used. By following these precautions it is possible to 
deliver a pure, wholesome, unpasteurized milk in a condition which remains 
practically unchanged for even a longer period than twent}-four hours. 

Certified Milk. — Dairies which are inspected either by operation of the 



172 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

law or, voluntarily, by a competent body of medical and scientific experts 
duly authorized to make such inspection furnish to the market what is known 
as certified milk. Each bottle of this milk bears the stamp of certification 
and this stamp may be used from the time of one inspection until a certain 
date specified on the stamp when the next inspection takes place. The duty 
of the inspectors is to see that diseased animals are at once removed from 
the dairy, that the sanitary conditions of the stable are perfect, that the food is 




Fig. 14. — Apparatus for Cooling Milk. 

abundant and wholesome, that the milking process is conducted according 
to the principles above outlined, and that the proper precautions are taken 
to prevent infection during the preparation of the milk for the market. The 
milk should be examined chemically and bacteriologically at each inspection, 
or oftener, to see that it is of a standard quality, both in respect of the 
number and character of the organisms which it contains and of its chemical 
constituents. Certified milk is, of course, more expensive than non-certified, 



PASTEURIZED MILK. 



173 



inasmuch as the dairy is necessarily called upon to bear the expense of 
inspection. However, the superior quality of such milk and its certain freedom 
from infection more than offsets the increased price, and makes certified milk 
the ideal food of a milk character, not only in the family, but especially in 
the hospitals, orphan asylums and other public institutions. It seems quite 
certain that in the near future practically all the milk that is sold upon the 
market of the country will be of a certified quality. 

Pasteurized Milk. — When milk is heated to a temperature of about 140 
to 160 degrees the greater part of the living organisms contained therein are 
destroyed. At the same time the temperature is not high enough to give to 
the milk that peculiar taste which it acquires when boiled. Such pasteurized 
milk, placed in sterilized bottles, stoppered with sterilized stoppers and kept 
in a cool place, will keep many days and even weeks without apparent deteriora- 
tion. Physicians and hygienists are quite agreed that pasteurized milk is not 
so wholesome, especially for children, as certified milk which has not been 
subjected to a heat sufficiently high to kill the organisms contained therein. 
The natural ferments of the milk, nameh', the enzymes which produce the 
lactic fermentations, promote rather than interfere with the digestion of the 
product. The killing of the beneficial organisms of the milk is onlv justified 
when there is danger of pathological germs being present. Hence the pas- 
teurization of milk must in this sense be regarded as a substitute for inspection 
and certification. 

There may arise cases where pasteurizing even of certified milk may be desir- 
able, namely, when from necessity it must be kept for a considerable period 
before use, as on shipboard, and other places inaccessible to a dailv supply of 
fresh milk. Pasteurizing is also justifiable for miscellaneous milk supplies, 
the origin of which is unknown. It is safer, by far in this case, to pasteurize 
than take the chance of consuming pathological germs. (See also page 537.) 

Pasteurizing of Milk. — A convenient method of pasteurizing milk is 
recommended by the Dairy Division of the Department of Agriculture, which 
is as follows: 

Directions for the Pasteurization 0/ Milk* — The pasteurization of milk 
for children, now quite extensively practiced in order to destroy the 
injurious germs which it may contain, can be satisfactorily accomplished with 
very simple apparatus. The vessel containing the milk, which may be the 
bottle from which it is to be used or any other suitable vessel, is placed inside 
of a larger vessel of metal, which contains water. If a bottle, it is plugged 
with absorbent cotton, if this is at hand, or in its absence other clean cotton 
will answer. A small fruit jar loosely covered may be used instead of a bottle. 
The requirements are simply that the interior vessel shall be raised about half 
an inch above the bottom of the other, and that the water shall reach nearly 

*By Dr. De Schweinitz. 



1 74 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

or quite as high as the milk. The apparatus is then heated on a range or 
stove until the water reaches a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit, when 
it is removed from the heat and kept tightly covered for half an hour. The 
milk is rapidly cooled without removing it from its containers and kept in a 
cool place. It may be used any time within twenty-four hours. A temperature 
of 150 degrees maintained for half an hour is sufficient to destroy any germs 
likelv to be present in the milk, in cold weather, or when it is known that the 
milk reaches the consumer soon after milking, and it is generally safe to adopt 
this limit. It is found in practice that raising the temperature to 155 degrees 
and then allowing the milk to stand in the heated water for half an hour nisures 
the proper temperature for the required time. If the temperature is raised 
above 155 degrees the taste and quality of the milk will be affected. 

Inasmuch as the milk furnished to consumers in large cities in summer con- 
tains at the time of delivery an immense number of miscellaneous bacteria, 
this procedure may not fully meet the requirements during hot weather, not 
only because such milk will not remain sweet for twenty-four hours unless 
kept in a good refrigerator, but also because the bacteria not destroyed by the 
heating may at times produce digestive disturbances in the very young. Under 
such circumstances it is best to keep the bottles in the water until it boils or 
to use one of the many steamers now on the market. After the bottles have 
been kept at the boiling point for three to five minutes (or longer if they are 
large) they should be cooled as promptly as possible and kept in a refrigerator 
until used. 

The simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a perforated tin pie-plate 
in the bottom, or have made for it a removable false bottom perforated with 
holes and having legs half an inch high to allow circulation of the water. The 
milk-bottle is set on this false bottom, and sufficient water is put into the pail 
to reach the level of the surface of the milk in the bottle. A hole may be 
punched in the cover of the pail, a cork inserted, and a chemical thermometer 
put through the cork, so that the bulb dips into the water. The temperature 
can thus be watched without removing the cover. If preferred, an ordinary 
dairy thermometer* may be used and the temperature read from time to time 
by removing the lid. This is very easily arranged, and is just as satisfactory 
as the patented apparatus sold for the same purpose. Any other simple 
method of procedure will give the same result. 

Average Content of Fat in American Milk.— From the thousands of 
analyses of American milks that have been made it appears that the average 
content of fat therein is about 3.90 percent. Of the different breeds of cows the 
Holsteins produce milk with the least content of fat and the Jerseys with the 

♦ Before using the dairy thermometer it is best to have it tested, as it may be unre- 
liable in the upper parts of the scale. 



CREAM. 175 

greatest. It is not unusual to lind in the milk of a Jersey cow a content of 
6 or 7 percent of fat. 

Comparison of Cow's Milk with Other Varieties. — Human milk differs 
from milk chiefly in having a much lower content of casein and a higher 
content of milk sugar. Goat's milk has a higher content of casein than milk, 
somewhat higher content of fat, and slightly less sugar. Ewe's milk is very 
rich both in protein and fat. Mare's has a low casein and fat content and is 
exceptionally rich in sugar. Ass's milk has less casein and protein than milk 
but more sugar. For additional data relating to milk see chapter on infants' 
foods. 

Cream.- — When milk is allowed to stand for some hours in a cool place 
or when it is mechanically treated in a separator the fat particles, being of a 
lower specific gra\-ity, are separated, and when they reach a certain degi'ee of 
consistence they form a product known as cream. The cjuantity of fat in 
cream varies according to the method of separation. On standing for a 
period of about twelve hours in a cool place the separated cream may be 
removed by skimming and should contain at least 18 percent of milk fat. 
Under the action of the separator, cream of a much greater content of fat is 
usually produced, often reaching as much as 30 percent or more. The 
separation of cream mechanically in a separator is preferable to the method of 
time separation, by gravity alone. The cream secured by the separator is 
very much fresher, as it can be removed as soon as the milk is drawn and 
cooled. Its content of butter fat can also be regulated to the desired amount 
and, in the third place, a more complete separation is secured than by gravity. 
By the proper manipulation of the separator almost all of the fat in milk is 
readily removed. Cream should be kept under the same conditions as has 
been described for sanitary milk. When placed in sterilized containers, prop- 
erly stoppered and kept cool, fresh cream will keep sweet as long as milk under 
similar circumstances. 

In large dairy industries the separator is practically the only method now em- 
ployed for securing cream while for farm use the gravity method of standing in 
a cool place for twelve or twenty-four hours is the commonly practiced method. 

Cream is used on the table with fruit and cereal foods and especially in 
beverages such as tea and coffee. It is also prescribed by physicians for 
certain diseases and derangement of the digestive organs where the nitrogen 
content of milk produces irritation and fails of digestion. Cream is not a 
complete food in the sense that milk is inasmuch as the other constituents of 
milk are less in proportion as the percentage of fat is increased, yet cream con- 
tains at least a part of all the food elements in milk, as, for example, nitrog- 
enous constituents, principally casein, milk sugar, and mineral matters. 

It must be remembered in this case that the fat is the \ariable element and as 
that is increased the proportion of other ingredients, necessaril)-, is diminished. 
The most important use of cream is in the manufacture of butter. 



176 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

Standards of Cream. — The composition of cream varies with almost 
every sample. The standards for cream vary in different states and cities. 
The national standard requires 18 percent of fat. 

Skimmed Milk. — The residue which is left from the removal of cream is 
known as skimmed milk. Skimmed milk contains the principle part of the 
nitrogenous constituents of milk, the greater quantity of its sugar and a very 
large quantity of its mineral matter. It is still a very valuable food product, 
lacking only the element of fat. When eaten with nuts or other oily food 
skimmed milk would complete the ration and make a well balanced food. 
The chief prejudice against skimmed milk is that it has been so often sold for 
whole milk. When sold and consumed under its own name it is not a fraudulent 
body and is deserving of a higher place in the dietary than has been ascribed 
to it. In the large creameries of the country the skimmed milk is usually fed 
to animals. It is one of the most highly esteemed foods for pigs and poultry, 
and is largely used for those purposes. 

Composition of Skimmed Milk. — Naturally the composition of skimmed 
milk would be that of milk corrected for the abstraction of fat. It contains 
some little fat when prepared by the gravity method and only a very small 
portion when separated mechanically. The abstraction of the fat increases 
the relative proportions oi sugar and casein. 

Curd Test for Purity of Milk. — The Wisconsin curd test is conducted as 
follows: I. Sterilize milk containers so as to destroy all bacteria in vessels. 
This step is very important, and can be done by heating cans in boiling water 
or steam for not less than one-half hour. 

2. Place about one pint of milk in covered jar and heat to about 98 degrees F. 
(Figs. 15 and 16). 

3. Add ten drops of standard rennet extract and mix thoroughly with the 
milk to quickly coagulate. 

4. After coagulation, cut curd fine with case knife to facilitate separation of 
whey; leave curd in whey one-half hour to an hour; then drain off whey at 
frequent intervals until curd is well matted. 

5. Incubate curd mass at 98 to 102 degrees F. by immersing jar in warm 
water. Keep jars covered to retain odors. 

6. After 6 to 9 hours incubation, open jar and observe odor; examine curds 
by cutting the same with sharp knife and observe texture as to presence of pin 
holes or gas holes. Observe odor. 

7. Very bad milks will betray presence of gas-producing bacteria by the 
spongy texture of the curd and will have an off flavor. 

8. If more than one sample is tested at the same time, di]) knife and ther- 
mometer in hot water each time before using. 

Normal milk contains practically no organisms but the straight lactic 
acid bacteria. These germs produce no gas and no bad odors, but purely 
lactic acid, and the curd formed therefrom is such as is represented in Fig. 17. 



CURD TEST FOR PURITY OF MILK. 



177 



/ , / /,, / 



/'.'' 



^'■^^. 




--=- -^- P K 



Fig. 15.— Improvised Wisconsin Curd Test. 
C, Can used to hold sample; P, pipette for measuring rennet; K, knife for breaking curd. 




Fig. 16.— a, Milk ; B, Broken Curd in Whey; C, Matted Curd. 



I.S 



178 



MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 




Fig. 17.— Curd from a Good Milk. Large, Irregi:lar Holes Mechanical. 




Fig. 18. — Curd from a Tainted Milk. Large, Irregular Holes Mechanical; Small Pin- 
holes Due to Gas. 




Fig. 19.— Curd from Foul Milk. 



KOUMISS. 



179 



Milk contaminated by the introduction of dust, dirt, fecal matter, or kept 
in imperfectly cleaned cans becomes fouled with gas-producing bacteria that 
break down the milk sugar and so produce gases and usually tindesirable 
odors. . . Therefore milks showing the presence of gas or bad odors in 
any considerable degree are milks that have been more or less polluted with 
extraneous organisms or carelessly handled, and as a consequence such milks 
show a t}pe of curd revealed in Figs. 17, 18, and 19. 

Whey. — The residue left from milk in the process of the making of cheese 
is known as whe}'. \Miey consists of that portion of milk which is not pre- 
cipitated by the rennet and which separates when the casein of milk is coagulated 
and sets in the process of cheese making. The whey contains the principal 
portion of the water in milk, the most of the milk sugar therein, and small 
quantities of butter and soluble nitrogenous portions (albumin) and solid 
particles which remain suspended in the solution. It may, therefore, be 
properly considered as milk from which the greater part of the nitrogenous 
])ortions and fat particles has been separated. The value of whey as a food 
product consists chiefly in the milk sugar which it contains. It is not very 
largely used for human food l:)ut is valued as a food for }-oung domesticated 
animals, especially ])igs and poultry. 

Composition of Whey. — The whey resulting from the manufacture of cheese 
contains nearly all the foods of the whole milk with the exception of the casein 
and fat. It is composed of from 6 to 8 percent of solids consisting chiefly 
of milk sugar, some albumin, a little fat, and about 0.6 percent of mineral 
matter. 

Koumiss. — Koumiss originated in Asia Minor in the production of a 
fermented drink from mare's milk, which is richer in milk sugar than the 
lactic secretions of most other mammals. By the fermentation of the milk 
sugar mare's milk is converted into a fermented beverage containing a 
small percentage of alcohol. In this country koumiss is made almost ex- 
clusively from cow's milk and by special fermentation at a low temperature. 
It is a beverage valued especially by convalescents and invalids and frequently 
is capable of nourishing the body in diseases which aftect the digestive organs 
when other foods fail of assimilation. It is also a cooling and delicious bever- 
age for those in health when properly prepared and stored. 

Modified Koumiss or Kcpiiir. — Koumiss made from cow's milk with the 
previous addition of milk or cane sugar to increase the alcoholic content 
cannot be regarded as a natural product but rather one to which the term 
"modified" may be applied. The greater part of koumiss made in the 
United States from cow's milk is of this modified variety. Cow's milk contains 
on an average about 4 or 5 percent of sugar and does not yield a fermented 
beverage of a sufficient alcoholic content without reducing the actual sugar 
content of the beverage below the point of palatability. Cane sugar is usually 



l8o MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

employed as the modifying agent. While modified koumiss cannot be re- 
garded as of equal value with the natural article made from mare's milk it 
is a palatable and wholesome beverage when produced and stored under 
proper conditions. The quantity of alcohol produced in any case is not 
very great and the change in composition which renders koumiss so easil}- 
assimilable in many cases cannot be due alone to the alcohol formed but to 
the fermentative changes produced by enzymic action which takes place in 
the other constituents of koumiss, especially casein during the process of fer- 
mentation. 

Koumiss or kephir, which is the name applied to koumiss made from 
cow's milk, is also prepared with the addition of honey, in the place of sugar, 
and small quantities of wheat flour, not exceeding 20 parts to 1500 parts of 
other constituents. Koumiss is sometimes artificially fortified by the addition 
of small quantities of alcohol, but this practice must be regarded as extremely 
reprehensible. The alcohol of koumiss is incidental to its fermentation and 
should not be increased beyond the normal amount. One of the important 
points in the making of koumiss is the control of the temperature which, 
during fermentation, ought not to rige above 50 degrees in order to get the 
best results. Koumiss may be made in the bottle in which it is kept, in fact, 
it is best made so, and its fermentation then resembles that of champagne. 
During the process of fermentation the bottle should be shaken at least once 
a day in order that the part which coagulates cannot be unevenly distributed 
throughout the mass. The bottle should be strong enough to resist the 
pressure produced by the carbon dioxid which is formed and the cork should 
be securely tied in. As in the case of champagne it is best to place the bottle 
with the cork down. Before using, the bottle containing the koumiss should 
be well shaken in order to thoroughly mix the contents which form a creamy, 
foamy mass extremely palatable, highly nutritious, and valuable not only 
as a beverage but in many cases of disease and disordered digestion as a food. 
In fact the value of koumiss for medicinal purposes, that is for medicinal 
food, is not thoroughly appreciated by the medical profession. This m3,y 
be due to the fact that the art of making koumiss is not generally known, and 
while the general principles upon which its manufacture is based have been set 
forth it requires an expert to make a palatable and useful article ("British 
Dairy Farming" by Jas. Long). It is worthy of suggestion now that the use 
of horses for draft purposes has practically been superseded by the automobile 
and the trolley that the production of real koumiss from mare's milk might 
become a very useful field of industry in the United States. It is perfectly 
certain that the genuine article must possess properties which are not wholh^ 
found in the imitations of koumiss which are so common in this country. It is 
well understood by physicians that a natural product produced from natural 
material is always superior in character both as a food and medicine to the 



BUTTERMILK. l8l 

synthetic or artificial product. Whenever, therefore, a fermented beverage 
produced from natural sources is contaminated by artificial products the 
resulting compound is not so useful nor digestible. For instance, wine which 
is made partiall}' from sugar and beer made partially from dextrose, although 
the\' may be healthful and wholesome beverages, are inferior in quality and 
character to the real })roduct made from grape juice or barley malt. 

Buttermilk. — The residue left in the churn in the manufacture of butter i^: 
termed buttermilk. There are two distinct varieties of buttermilk, namely 
that resulting from the churning of unsoured cream and that remaining 
from the churning of soured and ripened cream. The first kind of buttermilk 
does not differ in its characteristic essentials from skimmed milk and therefor,- 
is not considered here. The second class of buttermilk is far more common 
and is a beverage of pleasing acid taste. When made from properly ripeneo 
cream it is wholesome and delicious, especially in summer time. Buttermilk 
usually contains small particles of butter which ha\e escaped aggregation dur- 
ing the final process of churning. In well prepared buttermilk, however, these 
particles of butter are not very numerous and they add nothing to the palata- 
bility, although they do add something to the nutriti\'e properties of the be\er- 
age. It does not differ greatly, therefore, in its chemical properties from 
skimmed milk, although there is a slight difference in the relative percentages 
of the milk solids in cream as compared with- the same constituents in whole 
milk. The composition of buttermilk is shown in the following table: 

COMPOSITION OF BUTTERMILK. 

From Sweet From Sour 

Cream. Cream. 

PercetU. Percent. 

v\^ater, 89.74 90.93 

Fat, :. ... 1. 21 0.31 

Milk sugar, 4.98 4.58 

Protein, 3.28 3.37 

Ash, 0.79 0.81 

Acidity, 0.80 

There is another beverage sold under the name of buttermilk which is 
produced by the artilicial souring of skimmed milk with the aid of appropriate 
ferments, chiefly those producing lactic acid. This ])re|xiration is simph- 
artificially soured skim milk, and has no claim whate\er to the name butter- 
milk. 

Bonnyclabber. — Bonnyclabber is a term applied to milk which has become 
soured by lactic fermentation, producing a gelatinous coagulation of casein 
which is sufhcientl}' firm at times to prevent the liquid from being poured. 
Clabber may be regarded as a natural cheese curd e.xcept that tlie fat is chieflv 
on top. It is a beverage or food of a very agreeable t iste to m<ist persons and 
is often eaten with sugar. In the summer it is often formed during hot murky 



l82 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

weather, especially of that character which produces thunder storms. For 
this reason it is a common supposition that thunder or lightning sours milk. 
The thunder and lightning, however, have nothing to do with this process. 
The condition of the atmosphere which produces an environment favorable 
to electrical disturbances of this kind also favors in the highest degree the 
growth of the organisms which produce the lactic ferments. Hence thunder 
storms and the rapid souring of milk are frequently coincident leading to 
the popular impression as above mentioned. Inasmuch as the souring of 
milk usually takes place after the cream has risen the composition of clabber 
is practically that of skimmed milk modified by the lactic fermentation which 
has taken place. 

BUTTER. 

When cream, especially cream in which incipient lactic fermentation has 
been set up, is subjected to agitation in a churn under proper conditions of 
temperature the particles of butter therein contained are collected into masses 
so that the butter can be separated from the residual liquid. This process is 
technically called churning. The domestic churn in its simplest form is 
perhaps well known to almost everyone, especially those who have lived 
in the country. In the domestic manufacture of butter the cream is collected 
and set aside until sour, that is, until lactic fermentation has set up. When 
this is sufficiently advanced the cream is placed in a churn, the simplest form 
of which is a wooden, cylindrical vessel of appropriate size, being much 
longer than its horizontal diameter. The churn is provided with a dasher, 
namely a perforated wooden disk with a handle which passes thrcnigh a hole 
in the cover. When the churn is charged the butter is produced by agitation 
with the dasher. In winter time warm water is added to the mixture in order 
to raise the temperature to the proper gathering point of butter, namely 
65 to 70 degrees F. For the same reason cold water is added in the summer 
time. The art of the dairy maid is shown in the proper regulation of the 
temperature to secure the best results. When the cream is properly ripened 
and the temperature is suitable the gathering of butter will be accomplished 
in from twelve to thirty minutes. In unfavorable conditions the duration of 
churning may he for a much longer period. 

In dairies and large estabhshments churning is accomplished by machinery 
with very different mechanical appHances, but the principle which underlies the 
process is the same as that outlined above. The accompanying figures 
illustrate the process of churning by mechanical means in a modern dairy 
(Figs. 20 and 21). 

Treatment cf Butter. — The crude butter secured by churning is sub- 
jected to wasliing and seasoning processes in order to prepare it for the market. 
The washing or working of butter is accomplished by means of water. The 



SALTING BUTTER. 



l8' 



object of this "working" is to scjxirate from the crude butter as much of the 
curd and other non-fatty constituents of the cream as can he conveniently 
removed. The removal of these particles not only makes a butter of a 
higher grade but also one of better keeping properties. The working of butter 
also has much to do with its grain or texture, which is one of the character- 
istics to which special attention must be paid. The best grade of butter is 
that which receives no treatment other than the washing and working i)rocess 
to which attention has been called. This kind of butter is known as natural 




Fig. 20.— Power Churn Ready for Use. — {Courtesy of the Bureau of Animal Industry.) 



or unsalted or uncolored Initter, that is, a fresh, sweet product of an agreeable 
aroma, palatable, of fine texture and grain, and is the l)est product of its 
kind for human consumption. It also brings the highest price on the market 
and, by reason of its method of preparation, the consumer can usually be 
assured that it is fresh in character. 

Salting Butter. — In the United States, especially, consumers of butter 
generally require that it shall be salted. For this purpose fijie grades of 
dairy salt are used as free as possible from impurities and consisting of fine 
particles or crystals which rapidly dissolve in the residual moisture of butter. 



i84 



MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 



This promotes a uniform distribution of the sah ii: the form of brine through- 
out the mass of butter. The existence in butter of undissolved particles of 
salt is highly prejudicial to its taste and character. The quantity of salt used 
in butter is determined by the taste of the consumer. The more salt the 
butter contains the less value it has as butter and hence the quantity should be 
limited to the smallest possible amount demanded by the consumer's taste. 
Often butters are found in commerce which are so full of salt as to be wholly 
unpalatable and there is a tendency on the part of the greedy manufacturer 
to add excessive quantities of salt because it is very much cheaper than the 




Fig. 21. — Power Chirn, Open. — (Comiesy of the Bureau of Animal Industiy.) 



butter itself and thus he hopes to add tt) the proht of the ''ndustry. On the 
contrary this practice usually results in loss, since such highly salted butter 
naturall)' brings the lowest price. The amount of salt which is used in butter 
should not exceed two percent. 

It is a common supposition that salt in butter is a preservative. This is 
true when used in large quantities, that is, in quantities which render the 
butter somewhat unpalatable. The very small quantity of salt used purely 
for condimental purposes cannot be regarded as aiding in any material way 
the preservation of the product. 



COLORING BUTTER. 185 

Coloring Butter. — Unfortunately the i)ractice of artificially coloring 
butter is very prevalent in the United States. Practically all the butter found 
upon the market, even in the spring and summer, is more or less artificially 
colored, often with coal tar (anilin) dyes v^rhich, to say the least harm of them 
possible, are open to suspicion in respect of wholesomcness. The practice of 
coloring butter produced in winter may be regarded as universal, though none 
the less reprehensible on that account. The object of coloring butter is, 
undoubtedly, to make it appear in the eyes of the consumer better than it 
really is, and to this extent can only be regarded as an attempt to deceive. 
If cows are properly fed during the winter months with wholesome, nutritious 
food to which a small proportion of roots such as carrots orruta bagas are added 
or with yellow maize and clover hay, even in winter time the butter produced 
will have an attractive light amber tint which appeals strongly to the aesthetic 
sense of the consumer. The natural tint of butter is as much more attractive 
than the artificial as any natural color is superior to the artificial. There is 
the same difTerence between the natural tint of butter and the artificial as there 
is between the natural rose of the cheek and its painted substitute. It is 
claimed, and perhaps justly, that the use of certain vegetable colors, such as 
annotto, does not introduce any unwholesome substance into the ]:)roduct. 
Admitting this, we must next ask whether it deceives the consumer. If so, it is 
difficult to understand upon what ethical principal any plea for the artificial 
coloring of butter can rest. If it is admitted that there is no valid reason why 
butter should be colored other than the artificial coloring of foods in general, 
which is a practice so reprehensible that it is almost universally denounced, 
its practice cannot be easily defended. The dairymen of our country are 
honest and honorable and evidently do not clearly see the false position in 
which the practice of coloring butter puts them. When the dairymen of our 
country understand that the naturally colored products will bring the highest 
price on the market and appeal more strongly to the confidence of the con- 
sumer it is believed the artificial coloring in butter will be relegated to the 
scrap pile of useless processes. It cannot be claimed in any sense that 
coloring of butter artificially ever adds anything to its value as a nutritive 
substance. 

One of the claims for justifying the coloring of butter is that it 
distinguishes it from oleomargarine. This, however, is not the case since, 
under the law, oleomargarine may be colored upon the payment of a tax of 
ten cents per pound. The consumer has at his disposition a complete pro- 
tection against fraud in the use of oleomargarine by the operation of state and 
federal laws, irrespective of the tint of the product. Oleomargarine and butter 
are distinguished from each other by their natural colors and also by their 
chemical and phvsical properties and, therefore, there can be no justification 
for the coloring of butter on the plea that it distinguishes it from oleomargarine. 



l86 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

Thus, from every point of view it is evident that the artificial coloring of butter 
is undesirable. It interferes with the right of the consumer, who should know 
the exact character of the product he buys, and it stands in the way of the 
prosperity of the manufacturer by keeping upon the market a cheaper 
product which tends to decrease the price even of that of belter quality. 

Standard Butter. — According to the standard established by authority 
of Congress butter must not contain more than i6 percent of water and not 
less than 82.5 percent of butter fat. 

Renovated Butter. — The law of Congress which controls the manufacture 
of renovated butter is executed jointly by the Treasury and Agricultural 
Departments. The quantity of renovated butter produced during the }ear 
ending June 30, 1905, was 60,290,421 pounds. 

Adulterated Butter. — The quantity of adulterated butter which was 
produced under the authority of the Act regulating the manufacture of 
oleomargarine and butter and on which is laid a tax of 10 cents per pound 
during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1905, was 3,671 pounds. These data 
show that the tax of 10 cents per pound laid upon adulterated butter has 
practically destroyed the manufacture of that article. Normal butter has 
from 12 to 14 percent of water. It is sometimes rechurned with water to 
raise the water content to 16 percent. Such a practice results in adulteration 
whether the content of water exceeds 16 percent or not. 

Influence of Food upon Butter. — The character of butter is very easily 
affected by the nature of the food consumed by the cow. Butter has the 
faculty of absorbing very readily odors of all kinds. Foods, therefore, which 
have characteristic odors impart them to the butter. A most striking instance 
of this is in the eating of wild garlic. In this case both the milk and the butter 
are affected to such a degree as to be in many cases unpalatable. Hence foods 
or substances in foods which are aromatic or odoriferous are likely to impart 
their peculiar odor to the milk, cream, and butter. Of all the constituents 
of milk the fat appears to have the highest faculty of absorbing these objec- 
tionable odors. Therefore, the feeding of distillery slops is also apt to impart 
an unpleasant odor to milk and butter, whereas if these slops be dried and their 
volatile aromatic principle expelled, but little trouble is experienced in their 
use. The physical characteristics of butter are also changed in a marked 
degree by the character of the food. Butter fat, as has alreadv been indicated, 
is distinguished from other animal fats by its content of soluble and volatile 
acids of which butyric is the chief. There are certain kmds of foods which 
decrease or tend to decrease the content of butyric acid in butter. 

Influence on Melting Point. — The character of the food also has a marked 
influence upon the melting point of butter. The author showed many years 
ago that the use of cottonseed meal as food for cows tends to raise the melting 
point of butter. This was regarded as an index of some value for the southern 



OLEOMARGARINE. 187 

portion of the countrx', where a high temperature obtains over a period of 
six or seven months of the year. If the melting point of butter, which when 
normal is about t,t, degrees C. (91° F.), could be increased to 35 or 36 degrees 
C. (95° F.), it would be of immense advantage in these warm climates and, 
in fact, in all parts of the country during the months of July, August, and 
September. There is no apparent tendency to increase the melting point 
of butter by feeding other oil cakes. 

Transmission of Other Principles in the Food to the Butter. — Experi- 
ence has shown that when cows are fed cottonseed meal or its products 
the quality of cottonseed oil which responds to the color test known as the 
Halphen test, namely, the production of a red color with carbon disulfid 
and amyl alcohol, is transmitted also to the butter. In some cases this re- 
action is extremely faint while in others it is displayed with an intensity 
which is claimed by some to be equal to that of the admixture of 5 percent 
of cottonseed oil with the butter. The use of cottonseed meal, on the con- 
trary, does not seem to notably affect either the content of volatile acid in 
the butter or its refractometer reading. (Experimental Station Record, 
Volume 25, page 716.) 

OLEOMARGARINE. 

Oleomargarine is the name applied to any fatty substance which is prepared 
to be used in the same manner as butter. Oleomargarine is defined by Act 
of Congress as follows: 

An Act defining butter, also imposing a tax upon and regulating the manu- 
facture, sale, importation, and exportation of oleomargarine. (Approved 
August 2, 1886.) 

" That for the purposes of this act certain manufactured substances, 
certain extracts, and certain mixtures and compounds, including such mixtures 
and compounds with butter, shall be known and designated as "oleomarga- 
rine," namely: All substances heretofore know^n as oleomargarine, oleo, 
oleomargarine oil, butterine, lardine, suine, and neutral; all mixtures and 
compounds of oleomargarine, oleo, oleomargarine oil, butterine, lardine, 
suine, and neutral; all lard extracts and tallow extracts; and all mixtures and 
compounds of tallow, beef fat, suet, lard, lard oil, vegetable oil, annotto, and 
other coloring matter, intestinal fat, and offal fat made in imitation or sem- 
blance of butter, or, when so made, calculated or intended to be sold as butter 
or for butter. " 

The manufacture of oleomargarine can only take place in the United States 
under the supervision of officials of the Internal Revenue. All oleomargarine 
which is artificially colored a yellow or yellowish tint in semblance of natural 
butter pays an internal revenue tax of 10 cents per pound. Oleomargarine 
uncolored pays a revenue tax of one-fourth cent per pound. Oleomargarine 



l88 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

when made under proper sanitary conditions from sanitary raw materials 
is a wholesome and nutritious article of diet and usually can be sold at a 
smaller price than butter. It is especially a food product which commends 
itself to those who are under the necessity of practising strict economy in the 
cost of food in the family. The principal objection, and in fact the only 
valid objection, to its use is found in the frauds which have been committed 
in its manufacture and sale. There has been a constant disposition on the 
part of dishonest manufacturers and dealers, since the time when oleomar- 
garine became a commercial commodity, to sell it as butter. Although the 
penalties of national and state laws are very severe in this respect the practice 
is continued. The opportunity for gain is so great that the cupidity of the 
manufacturer overcomes his fear of punishment and disgrace, \^'ith a 
more rigid national and state inspection, it is reasonable to hope that this 
fraudulent use of oleomargarine can be avoided and the pure, unadulterated 
article under its own name be supplied to those who prefer it either on account 
of its properties or its price. 

Materials Used in the Manufacture of Oleomargarine. — Neutral 
Lard. — One of the principal basic components of oleomargarine is neutral 
lard or lard stearin, the properties of which have already been described. 
Beef fat stearin is another basic ingredient of oleomargarine and is the 
stearin derived from tallow or tallow itself. Beef fat has a higher melting 
point than lard and beef fat stearin a still higher melting point than the 
tallow. Hence it forms an ideal ingredient with which to mix the oily com- 
ponents which enter so largely into the manufacture of oleomargarine. The 
Jjeef fat or beef fat stearin is easily distinguished by means of the microscope. 
It forms beautiful radiated fan-like crystals, the characteristic appearance of 
which is shown in Fig. 9, page 67. 

Cottonseed Oil and Cottonseed Oil Stearin. — These are also important 
ingredients of oleomargarine affording the oily or more liquid constituents 
which, when mixed with the lard and stearin above mentioned, form a com- 
pound the melting point of which is slightly above that of butter and sufificient 
to maintain it in an unmelted state even in warm weather. The quantities 
in which these different ingredients are used vary greatly in different manu- 
facturing establishments and depend largely upon the location where the 
oleomargarine is to be used. When manufactured for tropical or subtropical 
regions larger quantities of stearin are employed than when used in temperate 
zones or for winter consumption, in which case larger quantities of cottonseed 
oil and cottonseed oil stearin are employed with the mixture. After the 
fats are mixed it is usually the practice to churn them with milk in order to 
give a flavor of butter to the product. In some cases the yolk of eggs is mixed 
with oleomargarine, as it is claimed that they impart thereto a firmer and 
more homogeneous structure which renders the mass better, especially for 



ADULTERATION OF OLEOMARGARINE. 189 

cooking purposes. All the ingredients which are used in the manufacture 
of oleomargarine are made known and recorded in the books of the Commis- 
sioner of Internal Revenue and thus it is a product which it may be said is 
strictly under government su])er\ision. 

Description of Process of Manufacture. — The fat is taken from the 
cattle in the process of slaughtering, and after thorough washing is placed in 
a bath of clean, cold water, and surrounded with ice, where it is allowed to 
remain until all animal heat has been removed. It is then cut into small 
pieces by machinery and cooked at a temperature of about 150 degrees until 
the fat, in liquid form, has separated from the fibrine or tissue, then settled 
until it is perfectly clear. Then it is drawn into graining vats and allowed 
to stand a day, when it is ready for the presses. The pressing extracts the 
stearin, leaving the remaining product, which is commercially known as 
oleo oil, which, when churned with cream or milk or both and with or with- 
out a proportion of creamery butter, the whole being properly salted, gives 
the well-known food-product, oleomargarine. 

Adulteration of Oleomargarine. — Since the coloring of oleomargarine 
is permitted upon the payment of a tax, oleomargarine which is colored can- 
not be said to be adulterated when the tax has been paid, although if coloring 
were not a legalized operation it would be an adulteration. Yellow oleomar- 
garine is an imitation of natural butter and its manufacture should be pro- 
hibited unless the product is marked " imitation." The character of the color- 
ing materials used is not prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue 
but as a rule the coal tar dyes are preferred in the coloring of oleomargarine 
to the vegetable coloring matter such as annotto and saffron. The remarks 
which have been made in connection with the use of poisonous materials in 
other products apply to oleomargarine. 

Adulteration ivith Egg Yolks. — An adulteration which has been practiced 
in this country is the admixture- of preserved egg yolks. Usually these yolks 
are securefl in China, broken, and placed in vessels and preserved with 
borax or boric acid or salt. These eggs are generally collected during the 
early spring and summer months and are not sent to the United States until 
the fall or winter. The importation of sucli articles is now prohibited under 
the food laws of the country so that the adulterations with the imported 
article is no longer to be feared. It is possible to preserve domestic eggs in 
the same way, and the use of them in this manner is regarded as an adultera- 
tion, since such preserved egg products cannot l)e regarded as suitable for 
human food. 

Adulteration ivith Preservatives. — Fortunately preservati\'es are not used 
to any extent in the manufacture of oleomargarine when intended for domestic 
use. The most suitable preservative in such a case as this would be borax or 
boric acid. It is not believed that these preservatives are used to any extent 



igo MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

when the prodvict is intended for domestic consumption. Whether or not 
preservatives are used in the product sent abroad I am unable to say. 

Production of Oleomargarine. — According to the report of the Com- 
missioner of Internal Revenue the quantity of oleomargarine taxed at lo 
cents a pound produced in the United States for the fiscal year ending June 
30, 1905, was 5,584,684 pounds, and for 1910, 3,491,978 pounds. The 
quantity produced in 1910 taxed at one-fourth cent a pound was 85,164,655 
pounds. 



COMPOSITION OF OLEOMARGARINE. 

Insoluble Sol. Acid by Sol. Acid by < 
"■ Acid. Washing Out. Distillation. 

.90490 Q.34 93-59 0-I2 0.25 3.64 0.35 



Specific Gravi- ,,- Insoluble Sol. Acid by Sol. Acid by g Albuminoids. 

TY AT 40° C. "AiLK. Acid. Washing Out. Distillation. 



From the above data it is seen that the objections to the use of oleomargarine 
are more on the grounds of fraud and deception than in regard to nutritive and 
dietetic value. The components used in the manufacture of oleomargarine, 
when properly made, are all wholesome and digestible materials such as are 
consumed in eating various food products. It does not appear, therefore, 
that any valid objection can be made against the use of oleomargarine from 
from a physiological or hygienic standpoint. 



CHEESE. 

Historical. — The preparation of cheese is one of the oldest of the technical 
processes. It appears that it was known during the time of King David, 
at least a thousand years before Christ, and the Greeks were acquainted with 
it before the writings of Homer. Aristotle and Hippocrates describe the 
curdling of milk which at that time appears to have been accomplished by 
the use of the juice of the fig. The use of cheese was very common in Rome 
in the earlier historical days but the most of it was imported from the North. 
Caesar speaks of the preparation of cheese among the German tribes. 
Cheese must, therefore, be regarded as one of the very oldest forms of prepared 
food used by man. It probably is almost, if not quite, as old as wine. These 
historical facts are interesting in showing how from the earliest times man 
has made use of the natural ferments to prepare food from the raw material. 
Attention must be called in this connection to the fact that many people 
claim that such foods as these are not natural foods but wholly artificial. The 
fallacy of such a claim is not difficult to show. An artificial food is one which 
is prepared out of materials which, themselves, are not edible food products 
or, at least, are not digestible or of a character which does not naturally occur 
by ordinary processes. Artificial foods, therefore, are purely synthetic, 



CHEESE. 



191 



that is, made up from the elemental substances, or they are mixtures or com- 
pounds. On the contrary a food like cheese or wine is not a mixture or com- 
pound but a natural jjroduct from materials which themselves are food prod- 
ucts. Milk is the raw material of cheese as the must of the grape is of wine. 
Both milk and must are rich and nutritious foods. The changes which each 
undergoes are in many respects the same. The must of wine undergoes an 
alcoholic fermentation and the milk sugar of cheese is subjected to a lactic 
fermentation and its casein to a proteolytic change which materially alters 
its character. 

Cheese products are a very important part of food materials of the dairy. 
The term cheese is applied to the solid product produced from milk by coagu- 
lation of the casein with rennet or lactic acid and subjecting the solid product 
thus produced to a process of fermentation and ripening by the addition of 
appropriate seed material, seasoning, and storage at convenient temperature 
for varying periods of time. In the precipitation of the casein of milk the 
fat particles become mechanically entangled and form a part of the precipitate. 
There is a certain quantity of other milk constituents incorporated in the 
form of water, milk sugar, and mineral matter in the precipitated mass. The 
greater part of the other bodies Avhich the milk contains, consisting of the milk 
sugar and a considerable portion of the soluble mineral matter, are separated 
in the form of whey. The composition of fresh cheese is that of tliat part of 
the milk which is precipitated and which is entangled mechanically in the 
precipitated matter. The ripened cheese is changed in its chemical constit- 
uents mostly as the result of fermentative action upon its nitrogenous con- 
stituents, that is, the casein, albumin, etc., contained therein. The ferments 
tend to change the casein into a more soluble form of protein, while at the 
same time they develop a flavor and aroma in a way agreeable to the nostril 
and palate. Various forms of moulds and other organisms grow on and in 
cheeses which influence their palatability and character. The final product 
of the ripened cheese varies not only with the nature of the original material 
as determined by the milk itself but with the character of the preparation 
and the nature of the organisms and ferments which are active during the 
ripening period, and also with the time and temperature of storage. 

Kinds of Cheese. — It is not necessary and perhaps it would be impossible 
to attempt an enumeration of all the various kinds of cheese which are offered 
on the market. The first classification of cheese depends upon the character 
of the milk used. The term "cheese" in this country naturally refers to a 
product made from cow's milk since that is the principal milk used in the 
United States for cheese making. The term is used in this manual in that 
sense and when there is no qualifying word employed it is always understood 
that the product in question is made from the cow's milk. This implies that 
the milk is at least a standard milk, that is, a whole milk, unskimmed and 



ig2 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND 0LE0MAR(;ARINE. 

containing not less than 3.25 percent of Ijutter fat. According to the defini- 
tion fixed by the Congress of the United States the term cheese is appHed not 
only to this product but also to one containing a larger percentage of fat than 
this. The term cheese applies both to cheese made from milk and cheese 
made partially from milk and partially from cream. The term "full cream 
cheese" is also often used in the trade but is likely to be misleading and 
deceptive. The real significance of the term full cream cheese is that it is 
made of whole milk or milk unskimmed which contains its full complement of 
cream. The term "cream cheese" is also often used to indicate a cheese made 
partially of milk and cream. It is evident that the term cream cheese in 
this sense is misleading, since it can be properly applied only to a cheese made 
from cream alone. Such cheeses are made but, inasmuch as cream must 
have not less than 18 percent of fat in order to be called cream according 
to the United States standard, the cheeses made from such a source are too 
oily and fatty for ordinary consumption. 

Cheese Made from Goat's Milk. — Goat's milk is also frequently used 
in making cheese. It is extensively employed in France and Switzerland 
for cheese making and also in other parts of Europe, and to a limited extent 
in this country. Some of the varieties of cheese which are most highly prized 
are made from goat's milk, such as Roquefort. 

Adulteration and Misbranding of Cheese. — The most common form 
of adulteration or sophistication of cheese is the misbranding thereof in re- 
spect of the country where made or in respect of character. This is a form of 
deception which has long been established in the trade and one which cannot 
be condoned or excused. There are certain varieties of cheese whose names 
should be respected and in fact, in the case of all varieties that have an estab- 
lished character and reputation, their name should not be applied to other ar- 
ticles made in imitation thereof. In this country there is a national law which 
prohibits the marking of a food or dairy product falsely as to the state or 
territory where made. For instance, a cheese made in Ohio cannot be marked 
New York cheese and peaches grown in Delaware cannot be marked Cali- 
fornia peaches, maple sirup made in Indiana cannot be labeled Vermont 
maple sirup, etc. The ethical principle underl}'ing this law is one which will 
meet the approbation of every well meaning man and therefore the extending 
of this principle to other forms of misbranding is an easy step. If it is a 
violation of the law to mark a cheese made in Ohio as made in New York it 
is certainly a violation of the ethical principle underlying that law to name a 
cheese made in Connecticut, Camembert. Unhappily, however, there are 
cheeses made in the United States to which foreign names are given, the 
universal excuse ]>eing that they are cheeses of the same type. In many 
cases this excuse is not a valid one and in no case is it an accepted one. To 
name a cheese made from cow's milk the same as that made from ewe's milk 



COLORING CHEESE. I93 

is a distinct misbranding in every sense of the term. There should be no 
diflficulty in established varieties of cheese made in this country having names 
which are not deceptive and not intended to mislead the consumer as to the 
slate, territory, or country where made. In one sense all cheese may be said 
to be of the same type, but because the taste and odor of a cheese made in the 
United States imitates to some extent that of a cheese made in France is no 
excuse for giving the French name to the American product. A further 
illustration of this principle is found in the following: The term Roquefort, 
for instance, is not properly applied to any cheese product except that which 
is made at or in the vicinity of Roquefort. In no other part of France can 
cheese be made bearing the name of Roquefort. The use of the term Roque- 
fort, therefore, in any way upon American cheese is a misbranding and an 
attempt to deceive which usually is successful. There is not so great an 
objection to the term Swiss cheese as to Roquefort, but there is the same 
kind of an objection. The cheese which bears the name of Schweitzer-Kiise 
is very extensively manufactured in Germany and sold under tliat name. A 
similar cheese is also extensively made in this country and sold under the name 
of Schweitzer-Kase. In this case there is no particular location or place which 
originated the name and has the sole right to use the name Swiss cheese. It is 
the name of a w^hole country and not of a location, and yet it is evident that 
Swiss cheese properly can only be made in Switzerland and not in Germany 
or in the United States. Any hard, tough cheese in which a large number of 
holes is found and which on cutting makes a llexible, semi-leatherv slice has 
to a certain extent the appearance and perhaps the taste and flavor of genuine 
Swiss cheese. 

It should not be difficult to find a market for all good cheese made in this 
country, under appropriate American names indicating their origin. If the 
term Swiss cheese is at all allowable on a package it should be placed as a 
minor part of the label and with the statement that it is of that tvpe. Even 
this transgression is perhaps difficult of excuse. 

Artificial Coloring.^Next to misbranding and misnaming of cheeses^ 
perhaps the most common adulteration is that of artificial coloring. The 
public taste has been led in the matter of cheeses, especially of American 
origin, to look for a deep yellow color. This is also associated with the idea 
of the use of a large quantity of rich, naturally yellow-colored cream. The 
addition of an artificial color to a cheese never adds anything to its value, 
and to the really aesthetic e}-e detracts much from its appearance. The 
presence of this rich artificial tint is calculated in many instances to excite a 
suspicion in regard to the character of the cheese and thus interferes with its 
proper gustation. There is another more serious objection than the one 
just mentioned, namely, that it is possible from skimmed milk to make a 
highly colored cheese which would appear to the consumer to be made of 
14 



194 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

whole milk or of milk and cream, and thus a dehberate deception is perpetrated. 
The consumer of cheese should demand that artificial coloring of all kinds 
be omitted from cheese products. 

Moreover, these colors may of themselves be deleterious in character and 
if so they are forbidden by law. By reason of the generally deleterious cjuali- 
ties of coal-tar dyes they should be rigidly excluded from cheese. There is a 
growing demand in the United States for uncolored dairy products. The 
coal tar dyes are cheaper and produce faster and more natural looking tints 
than the vegetable colors such as annotto and saffron, and hence, until pro- 
hiljited by law, they were almost universally employed. All of these dyes in a 
concentrated form are highly poisonous and injurious and several instances 
are on record of death, especially in the case of young children, from 
eating concentrated colors. The fact that a poison of this kind is diluted 
by the cheese is no excuse for its use. The only protection which the con- 
sumer has, which is reliable in all cases, is the prohibition of coloring matter in 
cheese. 

By Act of Congress of June 6, i8q6, coloring matter is permitted to be used 
in cheese in the United States and doubtless it will continue to be used under 
this authority until that portion of the Act is repealed or until the consumer de- 
mands an uncolored article. The pure, natural color of the cheese is uni- 
versally acknowledged to be best, most palatable, and most desirable. 

Preservatives. — Fortunately there is Httle to be said in regard to pre- 
servatives in cheese because they are almost unknown. The addition of a 
preservative to a cheese at the time of its production would so seriously inter- 
fere with the ripening process as to defeat the purpose of storage altogether. 
Hence in so far as preservatives are concerned there is little danger of adul- 
teration. 

Impure Raw Materials. — If cheese be made of pure, wholesome material, 
no inspection of factories is necessary. But it is entirely possible through 
-carelessness, ignorance, or design to use in the making of cheese milk which 
may itself be infected. Cheese made from such milk of course would carry 
the infection of the milk. This is a sort of adulteration which can only be ex- 
cluded by careful sanitary inspection of cheese factories. Such an inspec- 
tion has already been partially instituted by federal, state and municipal 
authorities. 

Filled Cheese. — Formerly there was a very consideral)le adulteration of 
cheese by manufacturing it from skimmed milk and su])pl3'ing from an artifi- 
cial source the necessary fat. Cottonseed oil, lard, and other edible oils are 
used for this purpose. 

Composilion oj Filled Cheese (Circular No. 1 1 , Bureau of Animal Industry). — 
Neutral lard is the principal fat which is substituted for milk fat in filled cheese. 
It is used to the extent of two or three pounds for every loo pounds of skimmed 



COTTAGE CHEESE. 1 95 

milk. The principal objection to a filled cheese is not on account of its 
containing lard, which in itself is not unwholesome. But lard is an entirely 
different fat from milk fat, and differs in the character of the fermentation 
which takes place. The characteristic flavors and odors which are contributed 
by the milk fat in the cheese are entirely wanting, and the cheese is devoid of 
aroma and flavor and is nothing more than a mixture of casein with lard. 
Filled cheese is such a poor imitation of the genuine article that it can never 
have any very great vogue, and especiall}' under the present law which requires 
it to be labeled and the payment of a tax. 

A filled cheese which is on the market not properly stamped and duty 
paid in harmony with this act of Congress is adulterated, and they who 
make and sell it are amenable to the law. The annual report of the Com- 
missioner of Internal Revenue for the year ending June 30, 1910, shows 
that receipts of $2,847.33 were obtained by the tax on filled cheese during 
that year. The amount made is, therefore, insignificant from a commercial 
point of view. 

From the above data it is seen that the manufacture and sale of filled cheese 
in the United States is almost a thing of the past and this form of adulteration, 
assuming that the law is thoroughly executed, is not now likely to be often 
met with. 

Cottage Cheese. — Cottage cheese is a term applied to a product which 
is usually only a raw material of cheese. It is the fresh, precipitated, and 
unripe milk product, above described as used in cheese making. It is a 
highly nutritious and very palatable product, usually prepared at home and 
not suitable for keeping or transportation. It is often made from sour milk 
in which the casein is coagulated by the natural development of lactic acid. 
The sour milk is placed in a cloth bag and the whey allowed to escape by grav- 
itation. The final portion of the whey may be forced out by pressure. The 
residue, when properly seasoned with salt or in any way to suit the taste of 
the consumer, is very palatable. Cream is often added to this residue which 
increases the normal amount of fat which it contains. 

COMPAR.\TIVE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN AND EDAM CHEESE. 
The chemical composition of some of the principal varieties of cheese are 
shown in the following table: 

Water. Ash. Fat. Protein. 

Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. 

American cheese, 27.5 4.1 32.5 28.38 

P.dam cheese, 36-34 4-24 3i-i7 22.28 

The data show that cheese is essentially a nitrogenous and fat food, con- 
taining only smaU quantities of carbohydrates, and therefore it is not a com- 
plete ration. It is a ration, however, which is complementary to a highly 



196 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

starchy diet such as rice or maize bread or potatoes. Bread and cheese or 
potatoes and cheese or rice and cheese, therefore, make a well balanced diet, 
highly nutritious, easily digestible, and quite palatable. 

Manufacture of American Cheeses. — The large cheeses which are 
principally found upon the American market may be said, in general, to 
resemble the Cheddar type, although the calling of these cheeses by the name 
"Cheddar" is misleading, and to that extent a misbranding of the product. 

There are two common methods of making these cheeses which are in 
vogue in the United States, namely, the "stirred curd" or "granular" method 
and, second, the Cheddar method. (Bulletin 104, Department of Agriculture 
of Pennsylvania, igo2.) The latter is the one more extensively used. The 
second product does not differ essentially in character from the first, though 
the latter method, it is claimed, gives a more solid cheese and one of more 
uniform character and with a shghtly less content of moisture. Since the 
Cheddar method has practically come into sole use, displacing the first method, 
a description of the Cheddar method alone will be sufficient to illustrate the 
method of making large cheeses which are now so common on the American 
market and which have such a well merited reputation. The process is 
divided into eight parts: First, coagulating the milk; second, cutting the curd; 
third, heating the curd; fourth, removing the whey; fifth, cheddaring the 
curd; sixth, milling the curd; seventh, salting and pressing the curd; eighth, 
curing the cheese. 

Rennet. — As has been said in the description of cheese making, the material 
which is most useful in the precipitation of the curd is rennet. The rennet 
is the secretion of the stomach of various animals, that of the calf being most 
highly priced for cheese making. The fourth stomach of the animal is the one 
which is used in the manufacture of rennet. The aqueous extract made 
from these stomachs contains a ferment which has the property of coagulating 
casein in a verv high degree. One part of good rennet preparation from 
healthy stomachs of calves will coagulate 1000 parts of milk. In former days 
rennet was freshly made and used at the factories. At the present time it 
is largely prepared on a commercial scale and sold to the cheese maker. It is 
highly important that the rennet used in cheese making should be of the best 
quality, as an inferior grade gives a bad taste and color to the cheese. Just 
as in the manufacture of fermented beverages and making of bread the char- 
acter of the yeast is a dominant factor in the nature of the finished product, 
so it is even to a greater degree in the case of rennet. Those who purchase 
the rennet already made should therefore be certain it is of a quality to give 
the desired character to the cheese. The greater the amount of milk fat 
in milk the larger the proportion of rennet, since the milk fat protects to some 
extent the casein from the action of the ferment. Experience has shown 
also that during the summer the rennet acts more readily upon the milk, 



MANUFACTURE OF AMERICAN CHEESES. I97 

probalily due to the higher temperature. Care should be taken to a\'old the 
use of any excess of rennet, since anything more than the amount necessary 
to conduct the coagulation is apt to add an unpleasant flavor to the cheese. 
The curd also in such cases is less cohesive and makes a tougher and drier 
product which does not lend itself so readily to the ripening process. For 
this reason the rennet which is to be used should alwa}'s be tested in small 
quantities of milk beforehand in order that the proper proportion may be 
definitely known and the i)r()cess on a large scale may be conducted with cer- 
tainty and not by guess. (" British Dairy Farming," by Jas. Long.) 

Rennet is sometimes treated with borax to preserve it during transit. In 
such cases the borax may not all be removed by the whey and is consequently 
found in ripened cheese. Its introduction in this way should be avoided. 

Coagulating the Milk by Rennet Extract. — This process is often termed by 
the cheese makers "setting the milk with rennet." The milk which is used 
for the purpose of cheese making should be, in the technical language of the 
cheese maker, "ripe," that is, containing a sufficient quantity of lactic acid. 
The principal method of producing the proper amount of lactic acid in milk 
is by keeping it warm, namely, at a temperature of about 84 degrees. At this 
temperature the most favorable conditions exist in milk for the rapid growth 
of the lactic acid ferments. If the natural ferments which produce lactic 
acid are not in sufficient quantity in the original milk it is better, rather than to 
wait too long a time, to start the development of the lactic acid by adding 
an artificial ferment. Lactic ferments are specially prepared for this purpose, 
or some previously ripened milk may be added to the mass. This is called a 
"starter." From two to five pounds of "starter" are usually required for 
each one hundred pounds of milk. The degree of ripening is ascertained 
by measuring the quantitv cf lactic acid present. The acid condition cf the 
milk is tested by means of a rennet preparation and if the milk will coagu- 
late, when thus tested, in about one minute or a little more it is an indication 
that a sufficient amount of acid has been developed to add the rennet for the 
proper coagulation of the milk. It is important to have the milk in just the 
right condition in order that the proper operations in cheese making may 
go on uniformly. Care must be taken, however, not to have too much lactic 
acid in the milk. For instance, 0.2 of one percent is too great, and such 
a milk is verv liable to give trouble in subsequent operations. In the curding 
of milk by rennet the temperature should be kept between 82 and 86 degrees. 
The amount of rennet extract, of course, varies with its character and strength, 
and this is best determined by the cheese maker's experimenting in order 
that the proper quantity to be added to the great mass of milk may be known 
beforehand. A sufficient quantity of rennet extract should be used to curdle 
the milk in fifteen or twenty minutes for a quick-curing cheese, and in thirty 
to forty minutes for a slow-curing cheese. The rennet extracts in common use 



198 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

are added at the rate of from one-half to five ounces for 1000 pounds of milk. 
Before adding, the extract should be diluted with from 20 to 40 times its 
volume of water at a temperature of from 85 to 90 degrees. The rennet thus 
diluted acts with uniformity on the milk, preventing the production of curd 
of a lumpy character. Previous to adding the rennet extract the mass of 
milk is thoroughly stirred in order to mix the fat therewith and the dilute 
rennet added evenly and slowly with constant stirring which is continued for 
several minutes. A gentle stirring of the surface of the milk should be con- 
tinued until the curd is at least half formed, in order that the fat may not 
separate. After the stirring is finished, a cloth is placed over the top of the 
vat to keep the surface of the milk from cooling, and the milk is then left 
undisturbed until the coagulation is complete. The coagulation goes on 
gradually until the whole mass of milk is one solid coagulum produced by the 
changing of casein into paracasein. 

Cutting the Curd. — In order that the whey may be separated it is necessary 
that the curd be cut into pieces. The smaller the pieces of curd, the more 
rapidly will the whey escape. As soon as the curd is formed it shows a ten- 
dency to contract and this tends to force out the whey. By cutting the extent 
of the surface from which the whey can exude is amplified and the rapidity 
of the process is enormously increased. The time for cutting the curd is a 
point of great importance and is determined by the skill and experience of 
the cheese maker. If the curd is cut when it is too soft there may l^e a large 
loss of fat and a decreased yield of cheese. If the curd is too hard the whey 
is more difficultly removed and the quality of the cheeses is not so fine. The 
following test is used to determine when the curd is in the right condition to 
cut. The end of the index finger is inserted oblic^uely into the curd half an 
inch or more and then slowly raised toward the surface. If the curd breaks 
apart with a clean fracture without leaving any particles on the finger and the 
whey which exudes from the broken surface is clear and not milky it shows 
the proper time has come for cutting. Specially devised knives are used for 
cutting the curd, which leave it in small cubes of about one-half inch surface. 
Skill in the use of the cutting knife is important and can only be acquired 
by proper experience. 

Heating the Curd. — As soon as the curd is cut the whey begins to go out 
of it and the curd settles to the bottom of the vat, the whey being of a higher 
specific gravity than the curd. After the pieces of curd sink to the bottom 
the surface easily reunites and, when broken apart, additional fat is lost. As 
soon, therefore, as the curd is cut the whole mass is kept in gentle motion by 
hand stirring or with a wire basket designed for the purpose, care being taken 
to avoid breaking or comminuting the cubes. When properly stirred the 
A^hey appears clear and is free of small particles of curd. 

The curd contracts and hardens during this process, and soon reaches a 



MANUFACTURE OF AMERICAN CHEESES. 1 99 

condition when the surface does not adhere so readily. The vat should be 
kept warm during the process of separation of the' whey, the temperature 
being raised to about 90 degrees and finally, toward the last, to 98 degrees, 
about blood heat. 

Separating the Curd. — The precipitated curd is left in contact with the whey 
for some time, and during this period some of the lactic acid in the whey 
unites with the paracasein. The setting of the curd is finished when a small 
mass which has been squeezed in the hand to remove the whey is pressed 
against a bar of iron heated to little short of redness, and it is found that there 
is left, adhering to the iron, fine silky threads. These threads are formed 
by the compound of lactic acid and paracasein, and the more of this compound 
there is the longer will the strings be. When the curd shows by the hot iron 
test strings one-eighth inch long it is an index that the time has arrived for the 
separation of the curd from the whey. 

Gathering the Curd. — After the whey is removed the cubes of curd are left 
in the bottom of the vat until they mat or pack together, a process which is 
technically known as cheddaring. The curd is sometimes removed from 
the vat and placed on a special apparatus for this purpose called a curd-sink. 
When the curd has matted together, forming a solid mass, it is cut into blocks 
8x8X12 inches. These blocks are turned in the vat in order to facilitate 
the removal of more whev. The blocks of curd are carefully j)laced one 
over the other until they form a large mass. 

The process of solidifying or cheddaring accomplishes two purposes: 

First, the whey is expelled to a considerable extent and, second, the lactic 
acid unites with more of the curd, changing not only its chemical composition 
but also its physical state from a spongy, tough, rubber-like consistence, 
with a high water content, to a mass having a smooth, ^•elvety appearance 
and feeling, and a soft, somewhat plastic consistency. 

Milling the Curd. — This process consists in cutting the lumps of curd into 
small pieces in order to introduce the salt and to handle it more readily when 
it is to be placed in hoops for pressing. This process is conducted in special 
mills which avoid, in so far as possible, the loss of fat. 

Salting and Pressing. — Salt is added for several purposes, chiefly for flavor- 
ing, but it also has other uses. It aids in removing the whey, — it hardens 
the curd and it checks or retards the formation of lactic acid. Excessive 
salting, however, is injurious. From 2^ to 3 pounds of salt should be added 
to the curd made from 1000 pounds of milk. Before putting in tlie ]:)ress the 
curd is cooled to a temperature of about 80 degrees, and after putting into the 
mold it is subjected to pressure to give it a proper form, rather than to remo\-e 
the whey which is practically all gone by this time. If the whey has not been 
properly removed before the cheese goes into the press it is almost im])()ssible 
to get it out then. The pressure should be uniform and continued for at 



200 • MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

least twenty-four hours. If a screw is used the pressure should be light at 
first and gradually increased. After the cheese has been in the press about 
an hour it is removed, turned, a cloth adjusted about it, and the entire surface 
wiped carefully with a cloth wrung out of hot water. 

The sizes in which American cheeses are made depends largely upon the 
market, the more common size being 15 inches in diameter, and the cheese 
weighs from 60 to 65 pounds. There is also a very large manufacture of 
cheeses seven inches in diameter, known as "Young Americas" and weighing 
only from 8 to 10 pounds. 

Curing. — The higher the temperature to which cheese is exposed in curing 
the more rapidly the curing process takes place, but the poorer the equality 
of the cheese. Experience has shown that a low temperature, 55 degrees F. 
or even less, gives much better results, althougli it rec{uires a greater length 
of time. If cured. at a higher temperature the fat is apt to exude, and will not 
be evenly distributed in the cheese. It is, therefore, more profitable, as well 
as better for the consumer, to cure at low temperatures, producing a supe- 
rior quality with less loss of moisture and a cheese which sells for a better 
price. 

Moisture in the Curing Cellar. — The cellar in which the curing takes place 
should contain air with a proper degree of moisture. The relative percentage 
of moisture in the air as compared with the total amount which it can hold 
should be from 65 to 75. This is determined by placing in the curing room 
a hygrometer which registers the degree of saturation. 

Qualities of American Cheese. — The quality of cheeses is judged by (i) 
flavor, (2) body, (3) texture, (4) color, and (5) general appearance. In regard 
to flavor it is impossible to describe what is meant. Only the connoisseur 
can determine properly whether a cheese has a flavor which is sound, healthy, 
and indicative of the highest quality. The cheese flavor should be free from 
any admixture of other flavors. Cheese resembles butter in this respect, that 
it absorbs and then gives off foreign flavors with great facility. Therefore 
in the whole process of cheese making care must l)e exercised to exclude 
every odor or flavor of an undesirable character from the cheese house. 

Flavor. — Under flavor one may also describe taste, which should be of that 
biting, incisive character due to proper development of ripening and its 
attendant bacterial and enzymic products. The various foreign flavors in 
cheese may be due to the odor of cows or the stable or may suggest "rotten 
eggs, " or it may be the flavor of rancid butter due to the decomposition of 
butter fat in the cheese. 

Body. — This is also a term which it is difficult to define. An American 
cheese is said to have a perfect body when it is solid, firm, and smooth in 
substance. This cjuality is ascertained by pressing the cheese between the 
fingers. When it does not press down evenly between the finger and thumb 



PHILADELPHIA CREAM CHEESE. 20I 

it is said technically to be "corky." It is smooth when it feels like velvet 
and is not harsh or gritty. 

Texture. — The term texture applied to American cheese refers mainly to 
its compactness. It is nearly related to body. The texture may be fine 
and close or porous. The texture is perfect when a cut surface of the inside 
of the cheese presents to the eye a solid, compact, continuous appearance, 
free from breaks, holes, or lumps. Cheese should not show any visible or 
separated moisture or fat. The texture of American cheese should be 
smooth, free from breaks, and fairly hard. The bandage should be 
smooth and neat, extending over the edge on each end of the cheese about 
two inches. 

Color. — A true and unadulterated cheese should have only the color of the 
milk from which it is made, and any other color incident to ripening which 
is usually green. Unfortunately cheeses of American origin are often arti- 
ficially colored. An over-deep yellowish or reddish tint, therefore, should 
be regarded as a mark of inferiority. Artificially colored cheese should 
not rank as high on the market as that of a natural lint, which is much 
more pleasing to the eye and much less objectionable to the aesthetic taste. 
Color is often added to conceal inferiority in the milk used. 

The sides of the cheese should be straight and of uniform height all around. 

The following scale of points is used in judging cheese, according to the 
above qualities: Flavor, 45 to 50; texture, 30 to 35; color, 10 to 15; 
general appearance, 5 to 15. 

Cream Cheese. — This is a soft cheese which is rapidlv growing in 
popularity. It is made from rich milk or milk and cream mixed together. 
It resembles in general Neufchatel, but it is richer in butter fat and 
is put up in a different form. The temperature of the room 'in which the 
cheese is made is cjuite important. It should be kept as nearly as possible 
at 75 degrees. The milk is first warmed to 70 degrees and run through a 
separator by means of which the cream is taken out, together with one-half 
the volume of milk. This makes either dilute cream or very rich milk, as 
you may choose to call it. The cream is heated to 84 degrees and about four 
or five ounces of rennet extract added per thousand pounds. The rennet is 
carefully and gradually stirred into the mixture, using about fifteen minutes 
for the addition. The mass is then allowed to remain at rest until whey is 
seen around the sides. The whey is then removed by draining, the resulting 
curd pressed and mixed with about 3 percent of salt. The cheese is 
not subjected to a curing process. It is molded into rolls from 3 to 4 inches in 
length, wrapped in thin paper and tinfoil, and in this condition packed for 
shipment. 

Manufacture of Foreign Types of Cheese in the United States. — The 
improvement of cheeses made in the United States by securing difterent forms 



202 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

of ferments and utilizing the best method of setting, pressing the curd, and 
ripening used in other countries is worthy of all encouragement. Unfor- 
tunately a disposition has arisen in our country of giving the names of foreign 
varieties to the domestic articles. Many fancy domestic cheeses are sold 
under strictly foreign names such as Cheddar, Stilton, Cheshire, Schweitzer, 
Limburger, Camembert, Brie, Roquefort, etc. In fact there seems to be no 
limitation upon the adoption of a name already identiiied with a distinct 
type and locality. Such a tendency is greatly to be regretted and perhaps it 
is only necessary to point out to our people the ethical offense which they 
are committing by such practices to secure their discontinuance. It is, how- 
ever, a perfectly legitimate undertaking to import the ferments which produce 
the famous cheeses of the world and utilize them to the fullest extent in cheeses 
of American origin. This, however, should be done in such a way as to care- 
fully avoid applying the name of the original article to the domestic product. 
Perhaps it would be no ethical offense or not a very great one to place upon 
the labels of the cheese products a statement that they are of the same type 
as the foreign product they imitate. This, however, should be an e.xpianatory 
phrase and not a part of the label which attracts principal attention. It is 
far better that a manufacturer should adopt some local name which would 
become identified with his product, and thus become a valuable trade-mark. 
The attempt to pass domestic cheese under foreign names is an offense 
against good ethics and also against the law. It is nothing more nor less 
than misbranding, and cannot be justified even in the absence of a law for- 
bidding it. 

Success with. Foreign Ferments. — Considerable success has attended the 
introduction of the foreign processes into the United States, together with the 
ferments which produce the cheeses abroad. The en\ironment, however, 
cannot be imported and therefore the ferments may rapidly assimilate dift'er- 
ent properties under changed conditions, and the continued importation of 
fresh ferments may be necessary to preserve the type of cheese. Some of 
the principal types of foreign cheeses made in the United States are those 
which are mentioned above. A particularly excellent study has been made 
of the process of making a Camembert type of cheese in this country. (Bu- 
reau of Animal Industry, Bulletin 71, 1905.) This particular cheese is a 
type of Camembert which is made at the Storrs Agricultural Experiment 
Station of Connecticut. For these experiments a cheese maker familiar 
with the Camembert manufacture in France was secured. The method of 
making the cheese and also of separating the curd and ripening was as nearly 
as possible like that used in France. The style of the packages was the same, 
so that from external appearances it would be quite difficult to distinguish 
them from the genuine Camembert cheese of France. The success attend- 
ing these experiments shows that it is possible to improve domestic cheeses 



PRINCIPAL CHEESES OF ENGLAND. 203 

by scientific effort in the direction of using the proper ferments. These soft 
cheeses made in Connecticut were of good quahty and had something of 
the flavor and type of the Cameml:)ert itself, though it was not difficult for 
even a novice to distinguish the two varieties from one another. 

These studies above referred to have resulted in a marked degree of prog- 
ress in the knowledge of the real changes which take place in the ripening of 
cheeses. The officials in charge of the work differ somewhat v/ith the author 
in respect to the character of the product, claiming that the making of Cam- 
embert cheese is not dependent upon uniform conditions obtained only in 
certain localities but rather on securing the proper cultures and conditions 
which are possible almost anywhere. The fact of the case is that the cheeses 
made at the Connecticut station are probably made under much more scien- 
tific conditions and much more rigid control than the real Camembert cheese 
made in France. The success which attended these efforts is only a proof of 
the statement made above that the introduction of these processes for making 
fancy cheeses in this country will doubtless result in the development of 
types of American origin of peculiar flavor and quahty. Such cheeses when 
properlv named and not confused with those of foreign origin will become 
quite as familiar and well known, both at home and abroad. (Bureau of 
Animal Industry, BuUetin 82, igo6.) 

Sage Cheese. — The consumption of the variety of cheese known as sage 
cheese is not very large at the present time in the United States and is re- 
stricted to certain locahties, yet it is rapidly growing in favor. Consumers 
who are accustomed to it are willing to pay a larger price for it than for ordinary 
cheese. Sage cheese is made exactly in the same manner as that described for 
the manufacture of Cheddar. The fl^avor of sage is imparted in three different 
ways, first, by adding the sage extract or tea to the milk; second, by adding 
the extract to the curd before salting; third, by adding the sage leaves to the 
curd before salting. The latter method is found to be the most satisfactory 
requiring the least amount of sage to give any definite flavor. Three ounces of 
sage leaves are found to be sufficient to flavor the curd from 1000 pounds of 
milk. The stems and impurities of the sage leaves are carefully removed 
and the leaves ground to a fine powder before mixing with the curd (Michi- 
gan Board of Agriculture, 1904). 

Principal Cheeses of England. — The principal English cheeses are 
Stilton, Cheshire, Cheddar, double and single, Gloucester, Derby, and Leices- 
ter. According to Dr. Voelcker, the finest flavored cheese is Cheshire, which 
differs from any other in being made from milk which is perfectly sweet, 
and some authors think its peculiar aroma is due to this fact. On the 
contrary, the more general opinion is that the best cheeses are made from 
milk slightly sour rather than that which is perfectly sweet. 

Cheshire cheese is manufactured by mixing the evening milk, which is 



204 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

kept cool over night, with the morning milk, and then warming the mixture 
until the temperature is about 90 degrees. The proper quantity of rennet is 
added and when the cheese is to be extremely yellow also some annotto. 
After thoroughly mixing, the mass is left for nearly an hour, by which time 
the coagulation is completed. The next operation is the breaking down or 
cutting up of the fresh curd, and this is an important process. Upon the 
care which is exercised in doing this depends in a large measure the richness 
and quality of the finished product. When properly manipulated the whey 
which is separated will be of a greenish color and clear, while the proper 
combination of milk fat and casein which is secured in separating the whey 
will make a cheese of first class quality. The curd is so dense as to naturally 
separate from the whey by deposition, and the latter is thus , drawn off by a 
stopcock properly placed in the vat. The curd is then placed upon a cloth 
stretched over lattice work in order that the separation of the whey may be 
complete. Finally before passing to the cheese house the curd is treated with 
eight ounces of salt to twenty pounds of curd. After the cheese is molded it 
is placed in a warm room for one or two days, and then taken to the press 
house where it is subjected to the usual pressure. The pressing process is 
continued by wrapping the cheese in dry cloths and subjecting to new pressure 
every day for five or six days. The cheese is then removed to the ripening 
cellar where it is turned two or three times a week. It is ripe and ready for 
consumption in less than one year. There are a great many variations from 
this method of making Cheshire cheese, but they all follow the same general 
plan. 

Manufacture of Cheddar Cheese. — The Cheddar cheese is made in various 
parts of England though chiefly in Somerset, the period of manufacture 
extending from April to November. Cheddar cheeses are made in large 
sizes varying from 60 to 100 pounds each. The temperature of precipitation 
for Cheddar cheese is somewhat less than for the Cheshire cheese, being 
about 80 degrees. Rennet is used solely in the coagulation, lactic acid not 
being liked for that purpose. In the making of Cheddar often some of 
the fat escapes in the whey and this is afterwards collected and made into 
butter. Two pounds of salt to 100 pounds of curd are used. 

Derby cheese is a name applied to cheese made in Derby. The Cheddar 
system of making it is usually employed. 

Gloster cheeses are made on the same plan as that of the Derby and do not 
need any further description. 

Leicester cheese is a variety of cheese which is very popular and made 
chiefly in the county of Leicester. The coagulation of Leicester cheese is made 
at a little lower temperature than that previously described, varying from 76 to 
84 degrees. The curd is allowed to stand for about one-half hour before it 
is broken up and the whey separated. The best manufacturers of cheese 



PRINCIPAL CHEESES OF ENGLAND. CC5 

disapprove of the use of artificial coloring and it may be said that eventually 
it is pretty certain that all cheese makers will come to the same conclusion. 
The use of coloring matter in cheese, even of annotto, adds nothing to its 
richness, and tends to deceive the customer into thinking that the milk em- 
ployed was richer in cream than it really was. The Leicester cheeses are 
small in size compared with Cheddar. About eleven pounds of milk are used 
to make an ordinary cheese. 

Stilton cheese is probably the most familiar and highly prized of all English 
varieties. It is not always to be obtained, and many imitations of Stilton 
are made and bear its name. The name it bears is from the name of the town 
where it was first, and is now, made. It is a cheese which has been known for 
about a century and a quarter. It is principally made between March and 
September and solely from the milk of cows fed on natural pasture, that is, 
for the finest variety. The use of artificial food for the cows is at once detected 
in a change for the worse in the character of the cheese. At first the rennet 
employed was made from the stomachs of lambs instead of cows and in the 
olden times the cheeses were not considered to be sufficiently mellow and ripe 
until they were two years old and exhibited spots of green in the interior. 

The most approved modern process of manufacture is mixing the morning 
and evening milk and bringing it to a temperature of 79 degrees. Rennet is 
then added and the mass allowed to stand for about an hour and a half. The 
curd is removed into cloths set in frames for the purpose of allowing the whey 
to separate. Usually about an hour is allowed for the natural separation. 
The cloths are then tightened and drawn closer in order to produce a slight 
pressure and placed in a cheese tub, several of them together, where they are 
allowed to remain for twelve hours. Usually a longer time is allowed before 
the curd is cut up. The salt is added in proportion of one pound to 60 pounds 
of fresh curd. The curd is then placed in tin cylinders with perforated sides, 
the cylinder being 12 inches deep and 12 inches in diameter, and put in a room 
at about 65 degrees to favor the separation of the whey which requires from 
six to seven days. The cheeses are then removed from the cylinders, brought 
into proper shape by a knife and wrapped with strong cotton cloth and allowed 
to remain for twelve days longer when they are removed to the dr}'ing room 
and kept at 65 degrees. During this process the original curd placed in the 
cell loses about one-half its weight so that ten pounds of curd in the end make 
five pounds of cheese. A very common method also is to make cheese twice 
a day from morning milk and evening milk separately. Extra cream is often 
added in making Stilton cheese, only whole milk or milk and added cream 
being used. The principal point to be considered with curing is the regulation 
of the temperature. 

Other varieties of cheese which are known in England are mostly named 
from the localities where they are produced and partake in general of the 



2o6 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

character of cheeses already described. These are Lancastershire, Wensley- 
dale, skimmed milk cheese, butter milk cheese, potato cheese, and various 
forms of soft cheese or those used without being allowed to ripen for any 
length of time. 

Varieties of Cheese Made in France. — There is a general idea that 
France is pre-eminently a cheese making country and this is true in so far as the 
making of certain brands of cheese which have international reputations is 
concerned. France, however, according to statistics, imports a larger quantity 
of cheese than she exports though probably the value of her exports is greater 
than the imports because of the high character and price of the exported 
articles. 

Manufacture oj Camemhert. — The first cheese of this variety was made 
in 1 79 1 by Marie Fontaine on a farm in the community of Camembert, near 
Vimontiers. The period of manufacture of Camembert cheese extends 
from March to September. It is made from whole cow's milk from which 
none of the cream has been extracted. The rennet is added at the temperature 
at which the milk comes from the cow as nearly as possible and the milk is 
artificially heated, the morning and evening milk being mixed, to this tem- 
perature. After the addition of rennet the milk is gently stirred for two or 
three minutes, a wooden cover placed over the pan, and left for five or six 
hours. The curd is sufficiently set when touched with the finger it does not 
adhere thereto. The curd is removed from the pan by a spoon and put into 
cylindrical metal molds open at the end and from these molds the whey is 
allowed to escape. It requires about two liters of milk to make one cheese. 
The whey is allowed to drain for about two days. After that time the mold 
is turned, a little fine white salt placed upon the top and allowed to drain for 
another day. After about 48 hours the cheeses are taken from the molds 
and salted. They are then placed in the drying room upon racks covered 
with straw. The drying room must be well ventilated and the air which is 
blown in for ventilation must be strained to be free of dust and insects. Care 
is taken also to exclude the sunlight, as this is very injurious to the proper 
development and ripening of cheese. The cheese remains in the dryer from 
20 to 25 days. The ripening cellar is the next point to which the cheese is 
removed, and this cellar is kept as nearly as possible at 50 degrees F. The 
cheeses remain in the ripening cellar about 30 days, during which time they are 
frequently turned and carefully watched. The progress of the fermentation 
which takes place in the cheese is indicated by its appearance. In modern 
times the manufacture of Camembert cheese is continued practically through- 
out the whole year, but the artificially ripened cheese, that is, made during the 
winter by the aid of artificial heat, does not compare in quality with the 
product which is naturally ripened during the summer months. The manu- 



VARIETIES OF CHEESE MADE IN FRANCE. 207 

facture of Camembert cheese has extended to a considerable distance from 
the original village, but it is all made in that part of France. 

Emmenthaler Cheese. — Emmenthaler cheese is a variety of Swiss cheese of 
the same type as Gruyere. It is sometimes called the "cart-wheel" cheese 
on account of its immense size. These cheeses are sometimes three or four 
feet in diameter and of a disk-like shape, something like a wooden wheel 
sawed out of a round tree. It is a cheese which was originally made in Switzer- 
land, although the manufacture of it has spread over into that part of France 
bordering Switzerland. It has the general character of Swiss cheese in 
texture, also in composition and nutritive value. 

Brie Cheese. — This is one of the most famous of French cheeses. It is 
made in the form of a round flat mass about i6 inches in diameter for the 
grande Brie and 12 inches in diameter for the petite Brie. The thickness 
of the cheese is about one inch. The method of preparation is not very greatly 
different from that of cheeses in general. During the curing process, as in 
the case of Camembert, mould develops, especially on the outside of the cheese, 
and the change which goes on in the interior breaks downi the casein, forming 
a creamy mass of a strong, piquant flavor. The mould which grows upon 
the outside of Brie cheese gives it a strong odor which reminds one of decom- 
position. Brie cheese might be said to resemble in general properties the 
Camembert variety of cheese. 

Roquefort cheese is a very popular cheese made in France from sheep's 
milk. When properly ripened it shows a green mould. It is made in a par- 
ticular way at Roquefort, and according to Konig has the following 
composition: 

Water, 36.85 percent 

Fat, 30.61 " 

Proteids, 25.25 " 

Lactic acid, i.go " 

Ash, 5.3Q 

Port Du Sal lit. — This variety of cheese has a most deserving popularity, 
not only upon the Continent but in the United States. It is, however, not so 
generally known in this country as the Roquefort and Camembert varieties. 
It was long manufactured by a secret process by the Trappist monks of 
Bricquebec in the Department of Manche. 

The secret of the manufacture of this variety of cheese is guarded with the 
same jealousy by the monks as is the secret of making the chartreuse liqueur. 
Port Du Salut is always put up in very small packages of cylindrical form, 
flat, and about one inch in thickness. The cheese has a number of holes, in 
which it resembles the Swiss cheese. Its flesh, however, is mellow, and does 
not have the toughness nor solidity which characterizes the flesh of Swiss 
cheese. Although the monks' secret has been well guarded the general method 
of its manufacture has been described (" Cheese and Cheese Making," by Jas. 



2o8 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

Long and John Benson). The milk is brought to a temperature of 86 degrees 
F., and is treated with rennet in such a way as to separate the curd in about 
one-half hour. The separation of whey is secured in the usual manner, 
first, by allowing broken curd to stand, and afterwards by pressure. A 
peculiar form of pressure is said to be used by the monks, — a number of 
screws are placed side by side on a beam and a numl^er of cheeses may be 
pressed at the same time. The pressure is applied solely by the hands and 
so is not very severe. After pressure the cheeses are placed in a ripening 
cellar, which is kept at about 54 degrees F. Care is taken in the ripening that 
the cheese does not become too dry. 

Pont UEveque cheese is well known upon the Continent, especially in 
France where it is made. It takes its name from the village where the manu- 
facture is carried on, which is not very far from Havre. The cheese is usually 
put up in a square or oblong package about one inch in thickness and of a 
size weighing about one pound. It has a tough crust and may be kept for 
some time after it is ripe with safety. The milk is set at a temperature of 
88 degrees and a sufficient amount of rennet added to produce precipitation 
of the curd in about fifteen minutes. 

When the curd is stiff enough to be cut and removed it is placed upon a mat 
made of rye straw through which the whey is allowed to filter. As the whey 
runs off the curd becomes tougher and the mat is brought together in such 
a way as to exert gentle pressure. This separation of the whey is continued 
until the curd can be placed in metal molds which vary in size according to 
the size of the intended cheeses. The cheese is ripened at a temperature of 
about 58 degrees in a humid cellar so as not to lose too much water. 

Gervais cheese belongs strictly to the family of fancy cheese, being made 
of a mixture of milk and cream. It is produced in large quantities in France 
and finds almost an exclusive domestic market. It is named for its manu- 
facturer, M. Gervais. The mixture is set at a very low temperature, about 
65 degrees. The rennet which is used is diluted with water and added in 
small quantities so that the curd does not separate for eight or ten hours. The 
whey is separated in a cloth bag and under very gentle pressure. The 
cheeses are usually sold in only a partially ripe state and the cheese 
combines the flavor of both cheese and cream. 

Bondon cheese is another cheese which is made largely in the region of 
Rouen. The size of the cheese is usually very small, from seven to nine being 
made from a gallon of milk. The method of manufacture is more like that 
of Gervais and differs from it chiefly in being made solely from milk instead 
of a mixture of milk and cream. 

Limhurger Cheese. — Limburger cheese is one of the most famous of the 
different varieties of foreign cheese, chiefly because of its bad odor. This 
odor is due to specific forms of ferments introduced during the ripening 



LIMBURGF.R CHEESE. 209 

process. Generally Limburger cheese is made from ])ure milk, but occasion- 
ally skimmed or partially skimmed milk is used. The milk is set at rather 
a high temperature, from 92 to 100 degrees. After the coagulation has taken 
place the curd is broken into pieces the size of a hen's egg and allowed to settle 
to the bottom of the kettle as the whey separates. In England a copper kettle 
is usually employed for the testing vessel. Aftei- the whey has separated the 
curd is taken out and placed in rectangular molds with perforated bottoms, 
then laid on tables so that the remaining ])ortion of the whey may drain off. 
The molds are turned from time to time to promote the separation of the whey 
and to make the cheeses keep their form. The cheeses are next placed in 
rows on a flat table with thin pieces of boards between them and subjected to 
light pressure. During this time they are salted by applying salt externally 
and rubbing the surface at frequent intervals for three or four days. The 
salt dissolves and ])ermeates the mass. During the salting and pressing 
the cheeses are kept at a uniform temperature of about 60 degrees. The 
curing takes place in cellars, well ventilated but very moist, at a temperature 
of about 60 degrees. As the cheeses ripen they grow soft. The curd takes 
on its characteristic greasy appearance at the time of the ripening, becoming, 
at first, a yellow and then a reddish yellow. The softening begins on the 
outside and proceeds toward the center and the cheese is considered to be 
marketal)le when one-fourth of it has taken on its characteristic texture. 
The softening of Limburger cheese is due to a ferment which breaks down into 
a soft mass the casein or paracasein of which the cheese is largely composed. 
By using the same kind of ferments and by following the same process, imita- 
tions of Limburger cheese are made in the United States and other countries. 
These imitations, however, never equal the original in the character of the 
product nor in flavor or taste, and should not bear the name of the real article. 

COMPOSITION OF LIMBURGER CHEESE. 

Water, 35.7 percent 

Fat,. 34.2 " : 

Casein products, 24.2 " 

Milk sugar and undetermined, 3.0 " 

Ash, 2.9 " 

Limburger cheese was first made in the Province of Liittick in Belgium. 
It has, however, come to be considered chiefly as of German production. 
The chief cause of the putrefactive fermentation which takes place in Limbur- 
ger cheese is the extremely moist condition in which it is kept. For this 
purpose the atmosphere of the ripening cellar should be almost saturated 
with aqueous vapor, containing at least 95 percent of its maximum degree 
of saturation. This moist atmosphere, together with the low temperature 
at which the curing takes place, keeps the cheese soft and promotes the putri- 
factive ferments. Under these conditions the surface soon begins to get 
15 



2IO l^nLK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

shiny and soft and changes from white to a reddish yellow. This change 
makes its way to the center, converting the harsh curd to a soft condition. 
The time required for this softening of the cheese is from four to six weeks. 
("Cheese Making," by John W. Decker.) 

Edam Cheese. — Edam cheese is one of the most famous of the cheeses of 
Holland. It is made at the town of Edam, situated on the Zuyder Zee, about 
twelve miles northeast of Amsterdam. The milk from which Edam cheese 
is made should be properly acidified as has already heen described. The 
coagulation takes place and the curd is separated by much the same method 
as is used in the manufacture of Cheddar cheese. The curd is held for a time 
in the vat in a granular condition in order to develop greater acidity and until 
it will string one-half inch or one inch on the hot iron already described. It is 
then ready for the mold. The molds are of such a character as to give the 
cheese a spherical shape about six inches in diameter. Each cheese weighs 
about four pounds. It has a perfectly solid texture and its flavor is something 
like that of old Cheddar, except that it is a little more salty and somewhat 
harder. It is cured at a temperature of about 60 degrees and at a humidity 
of about 80 degrees. The curing period is somewhat longer than for most 
cheeses, lasting about eight or ten months and even a year. A slow curing 
is particularly necessary in the production of Edam cheese. 

Coating with Parafjine. — In the curing of cheese sometimes it is coated 
with paraffine to avoid loss of weight. Coating with paraffine does not neces- 
sarily interfere with the character of the cheese, though it is probable that it 
must interfere in some way with the normal ferments. Paraffine is wholly 
indigestible and may produce injurious effects if swallowed with the cheese. 
("Farmers' Bulletins," Nos. 186-190.) 

Fancy Cheeses. — There is a large number of cheeses made in which cream 
enters as a prominent part. It is difficult to give these any particular name 
and the term "fancy cheese" has been applied to this form of cheese as a whole. 
They are usually put up in small packages or little pots and thus form an 
article of diet quite distinct from the large press cheese of commerce. In fact 
they are intended more for condimental purposes and to be eaten in something 
of the same manner as butter rather than cheese. These cheeses usually 
are sold for a much higher price and, therefore, can be regarded more as a 
luxury than as a regular article of diet. 

It might be well to mention some of the more particular varieties of these 
fancy cheeses. 

Gruyhre. — Gruyere is a cheese made in Switzerland, where it is much prized 
and from where it is sent to the various parts of the world. It is a pressed 
cheese of a somewhat larger size than the fancy cheeses already described, 
and it is difficult to say whether or not it should find a place among them. 

Parmesan. — Parmesan is a variety of cheese made in Italy. It is about 



BACTERIAL ACTIVITY IN CHEESE, 211 

the same size as Gruyere and thus has an intermediate place between the 
large pressed cheeses of commerce and the fancy cheeses above mentioned. 

Gorgonzola is an ItaHan cheese mottled by a chromogenic penicillium much 
like Roquefort. It is in one sense a fancy cheese and yet is made in such 
quantities as to belong rather to the commercial varieties. It is manufactured 
chiefly in Lombard)-. 

Bacterial Activity in Cheese. — ^Modern science has led to the conclusion 
that the ripening of cheese is due principally to bacterial activity. The 
changes which take place in the chemical and physical properties of cheese 
materials, the flavor and aroma which are developed, the production of mould 
and other growths are marks of the activity of organisms of different character, 
living and unorganized. Due credit must be given to the enzymic (unorganized) 
action in these processes and the enzymes are not regarded as living organisms 
but, on the other hand, as catalytic agents inducing chemical changes similar 
to those produced in starch by the action of diastase. The peculiar flavors 
of cheeses which are found in different kinds have been ascribed in late years 
almost exclusively to the character of bacterial activity. This assumption 
is perhaps correct, but it must not be forgotten in this connection that the 
same species of bacteria, in changed environments, does not always produce 
the same results. The activities of bacteria are peculiarly sensitive to the 
environment, such as change of temperature, physical conditions of different 
kinds, locality, and other factors of a complex nature, making up the total 
conditions in which the organisms live. For this reason the attempts to 
produce peculiar cheeses which belong in particular localities in other locali- 
ties have not been gustatorily even if technically successful. It is true that 
cheeses may be made of the types mentioned, having some of the general char- 
acteristics but lacking that indescribable something which after all gives 
true character. Just as it is impossible to make a Rhine wine in California 
or a Bordeaux wine in New York so is it impossible to make a Cheddar cheese 
in Ohio or a Camembert cheese in Connecticut. 

Number of Bacteria. — The number of bacteria, per gram, which appear in 
cheese varies according to the age of the cheese, conditions under which it is 
made, temperature, etc. The usual number of bacteria in one gram of 
cheese varies from five hundred thousand to nearly one hundred million 
(21st Annual Report of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station). 

Aging does not seem to increase the number of organisms, since it has been 
found by some observers that the maximum number present in cheese is 
found at the time it is taken from the press. It is difficult also to properly 
sample a cheese for the number of bacteria, since they are unequally distributed 
in different parts thereof , and the trier, by means of which the sample is secured, 
may show largely differing numbers in different parts of the same cheese. 
During the process of curing, especially if the curing be at a high temperature, 



212 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

the number of organisms decreases. At first the decrease is very rapid and 
then becomes slower as' the cheese becomes riper. The decrease in the 
number of bacteria when the temperature of curing is raised is somewhat 
contrary to expectations. It has been found that when a cheese is taken from 
cold storage, say at 24 degrees F., and placed in a temperature of 60 degrees 
F., the decline in the number of bacteria is always greater than when the 
cheese is retained at the lower temperature. This may be due to the fact 
that bacteria which have been developed at a low temperature may lose 
their vitality at a higher one. Furthermore, the development of flavor does 
not seem to depend upon the number of organisms since the peculiar 
flavor of cheese is more rapidly developed at the higher temperature, pro- 
vided it be not too high, although this be attended with a diminution in 
the number of organisrfis. Evidently the conditions which favor the meta- 
bolic activities of organisms also favor their destruction, since when they have 
performed their functions they undergo natural disintegration. The character 
of cheese is such that when it is once formed there is no more opportunity 
given for a rapid proliferation of the organisms. 

It may be found, however, that the development of bacterial life is not the 
sole or perhaps not the dominant factor in the development of flavors and 
aromas in cheeses but that this process is due very largely to the enzymic 
activities obtained from the rennet and which pre-exist in the milk. 

Chemical Changes Which Take Place During the Ripening of the 
Cheese. — Loss oj Weight. — During the process of ripening of cheese there 
is considerable loss of weight, amounting to from 15 to 20 percent of the total 
weight of the fresh product. This loss is due chiefly to the evaporation of 
water, while in the fermentation which takes place volatile bodies are formed 
which also escape with the water. For instance, any free gas, either carbon 
dioxid, hydrogen, or nitrogen, which is produced will escape, likewise any 
alcohol which is formed will at least partially volatilize. There may be 
also a slight loss due to mechanical attrition, but that is not of any consequence. 
Owing to the loss of water some of the constituents which may diminish in 
actual quantity have their percentages proportionately increased. These 
changes are illustrated by the following analytical data: 

Water. Protein. Fat. Milk Sugar. Ash. 

Fresh cheese, 40.42 24.80 28 1.65 5.43 

In the dry substance, 41.62 46.99 .... 

Same cheese one year old, 3.3-12 27.35 3^-7° 2.96 4.87 

In the dry substance, 40.89 47.40 .... .... 

The quantity of water which is lost in part depends upon the temperature 
of the store house and the dryness of the air. The loss of water should not 
be too great, otherwise the cheese would be dry and the ripening process would 
not go on in a proper manner. In some of the processes which take place- 



CHEMICAL CHANGES IN RIPENING OF CHEESE. 213 

during the ripening of cheese water is formed. If, therefore, there is no loss 
of weight during the process of ripening, the ripened cheese would have more 
water than thie fresh cheese and this would impair the quality of the product. 
The loss of a certain part of water, namely, from 15 to 20 percent must be 
regarded as an advantage in the production of cheese. 

Changes in the Protein. — The most important chemical changes, from a 
digestive point of view, which take place in the cheese are those which the 
protein undergoes. This protein substance consists chiefly of casein and 
undergoes profound alteration due to enzymic action during the process of 
ripening. The casein which when dry naturally forms a leathery, tough 
material changes into a more soluble and softer product, and during this 
change there are produced aromas and flavors which add much to the value 
■of the cheese for edible purposes. 

The character of the coagulation of the cheese originally has much to do 
with the general changes which the product undergoes during fermentation. 
The cheese makers for this reason must pay special attention to the rennet 
which they employ in the production of the precipitate. One of the most 
important of the changes which the casein undergoes is that which results 
in the production of ammonia. This indicates a complete decomposition of 
the protein substance, at least in part, so that the total amount of protein 
which is lost as such may reach as high as 25 or 30 percent of that present 
in the original cheese. There are also produced notable quantities of lucin 
and other nitrogenous compounds soluble in alcohol. In general it may 
be said that the changes in the nitrogen constituents of cheese are extremely 
helpful to digestion. Not only is the protein of ripened cheese more soluble 
but even the parts which remain unchanged as far as the protein constituent 
is concerned are so affected by the action of fermentation as to render them 
more readily subject to the action of the digestive ferments in the alimentary 
canal. There is a popular superstition that the use of cheese at the end of a 
meal helps to digest the other food which has given rise to the adage "Cheese, 
thou mighty elf, digesting all things but thyself." There is a base of scientific 
truth in this expression since in ripe cheese the enzymes remain still in an 
active form and when taken into the stomach must necessarily exercise an 
influence of considerable magnitude upon the process of digestion. The 
custom, therefore, which is so universal, of finishing a dinner with a bit of 
cheese is evidently based upon sound physiological as well as gastronomical 
principles. 

Changes in the Fat. — The chemical changes which flie fat undergoes in the 
process of ripening the cheese are also of considerable importance. It is 
claimed by some authors that additional fat is produced from the casein 
during the process of ripening, which is the cause of the lardy appearance of 
some cheeses. Many observers have found in ripened cheese a larger per- 



214 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

centage of fat than that which was noticed in the fresh cheese. This 
apparent increase, however, may be due to analytical error, since in the fresh 
cheese the fat becomes entangled with highly insoluble caseous matter and is 
difficult of extraction, whereas after the ripening of the cheese and degra- 
dation and breaking up of the caseous tissues the fat is much more readily 
extracted. While it is not impossible that fat should be formed by the fer- 
mentation of the casein it does not seem that it is probable. 

In examinations which were made of fresh and ripened cheese of the variety 
known as Rociuefort there was found in the dry substance of the fresh cheese 
40.80 percent of protein and 53.91 percent of fat. In the same cheese 
after it was quite old there was found in the dry substance 37.78 percent of 
protein and 56.14 percent of fat. These data serve to bear out the theory 
that fat is formed from the protein. On the contrary, it must be remembered 
that in the fermentation of the protein a number of volatile bodies are formed, 
especially ammonia, and thus the diminution in the percentage of protein is 
probably due to the loss of volatile bodies, and the increase in the quantity of 
fat is therefore a relative one, probably, and not absolute. There is no doubt, 
however, of the fact that the quantity or character of the fat does change 
considerably during the process of ripening. There is no reason for supposing 
that the fat alone of all the contents of cheese escapes enzymic action. It 
is profoundly changed in its character by the fermentations to which it is 
subjected, and this change, while it unsuits the fat for butter, may probably 
make it more palatable and desirable in cheese. 

Digestibility of Cheese, — Reference has already been made to the fact 
that in the ripening of cheese the protein of the milk, consisting ])rincipally 
of casein, undergoes certain changes which apparently, at least, increase its 
digestibility. I use the word "apparent" because the flavor and aromas 
which are produced in the ripening of a cheese act as condimental substances 
and thus naturally excite the glands which secrete the digestive enzymes to 
greater activity. Therefore the increased digestibility may be due in part 
to the increased activity of the digestive ferments as above described rather 
than to the changes in the casein itself. It must be admitted, however, that 
these changes during ripening tend to make the casein more granular, softer, 
and to convert it into compounds more easily acted upon, and are thus favor- 
able to increased digestibility. Experimental studies have shown that in a 
well ripened American cheese of the Cheddar type 93 percent of the protein 
present in the cheese and 95 percent of the fat are digested. Artificial 
digestion experiments have also shown that the pancreas ferments have 
much more effect upon cheese digestion than the peptic, showing that the 
cheese is acted upon more in the small intestines, perhaps, than in the stomach. 
Attention must also be paid to idiosyncrasies in these cases, as there are many 
people who find it impossible to digest cheese in any form. The eating of 



PREPARATIONS OF CASEIN. 215 

larger quantities than are necessary also tends to derange the digestive organs, 
A well ripened cheese, therefore, should be eaten rather as a condimental 
substance than as an actual food product, though its value as a food is fully 
attested. ("Farmers' Bulletin," No. 162.) 

Effect of Cold Storage on the Curing of Cheese.— Attention has been 
called, in the description of different methods of making varieties of cheeses, 
to the ordinary temperature at which cheeses are cured. In European coun- 
tries these temperatures are maintained without the use of artificial means. 
In the United States it is difficult to maintain a very low temperature in summer 
time without the use of artificial refrigerators. Experimental studies have 
determined that when the temperature of ripening or storage is reduced to a 
considerable extent below that usually specified for the standard varieties of 
cheese the quality of the cheese is preserved although the time of ripening is 
very much prolonged. The artificial curing of cheese has been secured at as 
low a temperature as 40 degrees. There is also less loss of weight in cheese 
ciu-ed at this low temperature. It is evident that in the curing of cheese the 
temperature should not be reduced below a point which prevents projjer 
enzymic activity. After the cheese is ripened the temperature of storage may 
be reduced to the freezing point or even lower. 

Preparations of Casein. — Properly in connection with cheese prepa- 
rations may be mentioned those products which are of a food value, procured 
from casein itself. The precipitated casein is prepared for the market by wash- 
ing, drying, and grinding to a fine powder, and is then sometimes called protein 
flour. Sanose is a mixture consisting of about 80 percent of casein and 20 
percent of the protein derived from the white of egg. The addition of the 
white of egg enables the casein to remain in suspension when mixed with 
water and thus causes the preparation to resemble milk. Casein preparations 
of this form are practically insoluble in water and, therefore, perhaps are not 
the best forms of nitrogenous food for invalids. To avoid this insolubility the 
casein has been combined with alkalies and the preparations are known as nutrose 
and eucasein. Plasma is also a preparation of casein with alkalies which are 
added in sufficient quantities to give 7 percent of ash. These caseinates, as they 
are sometimes called, that is, combinations of casein with alkalies, are soluble 
in water and are found to be to a certain extent digestible and nutritive pre])ara- 
tions. Casumen and sanatogen are other preparations of casein with alkalies or 
glycero-phosphate. Wonderful claims are made by manufacturers concerning 
the digestibility and nutritive properties of these preparations. It is doubtful, 
however, if they have much greater value, if any, than natural casein in the 
form of milk or as ripened in cheese. Preparations of this kind usually a])peal 
strongly to those who suft'er from digestive disorders and therefore high- 
sounding names, which are given to ]>ractically the same ])rc])arations, lead the 



2l6 MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AND OLEOMARGARINE. 

seeker after health often to try the same substance under a dozen different 
appellations. These remarks are not made for the purpose of decrying in 
any way the merits which these preparations may have but only to illustrate 
a very marked tendency on the part of many people to attribute extreme 
virtues to ordinary food substances which are sold under attractive and some- 
times deceptive names and whose properties and virtues are advertised in 
an expert manner. Because a food substance consists almost wholly of pure 
protein is no indication whatever of its exceptionally high food value. Protein 
is only one form of food and a concentrated ration of protein in any of these 
forms is just as likely to do harm as good. For emergency rations, for economy 
in transportation, and for certain diseased conditions of the digestive organs 
these preparations are undoubtedly valuable, but they have little claim upon 
the general public in a state of health as staple articles of diet. They are 
much more nutritive than the extracts of beef and other meats which have 
obtained a vogue wholly out of proportion to their dietetic or medicinal value. 
("Foods and Principles of Dietetics," by Robert Hutchinson.) 

Cheese Compounds. — The trade in manipulated cheese is one of some 
magnitude. The cured cheese of commerce is reduced to the state of a 
paste, mixed with butter sometimes and also regrettably with a preservative, 
usually borax, jmcked in small vessels, and sold under some distinctive 
or proprietary name. When not chemically preserved there is no objection 
from a sanitary point of view to such a product. It is in a form convenient 
for use, easily transportable, and well suited to use at a picnic or during travel. 
Many people are fond of these preparations, preferring them even to the 
natural cheese. The price of such products, however, is usually much greater 
than that of the natural cheese, and for this reason they are not likely to come 
into general use. 

Consumption of Cheese. — Cheese is by no means as generally consumed 
in the United States as it is in many European countries. No matter how 
poor the peasant may be in Europe cheese is not unknown to his diet. When 
not used directly as a food its condimental properties are utilized. It is grated 
into the soup or used to season the macaroni or to add zest to the simple dessert. 
Its condimental value should be better understood among our people and it 
may be used with great economy in the replacement of meat in many cases. The 
more general teaching of scientific dairying in the agricultural schools of our 
country ought to improve the character of our product and increase its con- 
sumption. One of the obstacles which has impeded the growth of cheese- 
eating in the United States is the lack of knowledge among our farmers of the 
l)roper methods of cheesemaking in a small way. The establishment of the 
neighborhood cheese factory has already led to a marked increase of the area 
in which cheese is made. 



PART V. 

CEREAL FOODS. 



BARLEY (Genus Hordeum). 

In the United States barley is not used to any extent as human food. It 
has all the nutritive properties of the common cereals and may be considered 
as a food product, although its chief use is in the making of fermented bev- 
erages which will be described in full in the second volume. 

Barley is cultivated chiefly in the northern and western portions of the 
United States and is similar to the oat in this respect, that when the grain is 
threshed by the ordinary process the first layer of chaff is not separated, and, 
therefore, it goes into the market unhuUed. There are varieties of naked 
barley which are not much cultivated. The cultivated varieties {Hordeum 
sathmm Pers.) belong practically to one species, although there are very many 
different varieties grown. 

The character of barley best suited to malting will be discussed in the 
second volume. 

Acreage and Yield 0} Barley. — The area planted to barley in the United 
States and other statistical data relating thereto for the year 1909 are as 
follows : 

Acreage, 7,01 1,000 

Yield per acre 24.3 bushels 

Total production, 1 70,284,000 " 

Price per bushel, 55.2 cents 

Value of crop, 93,971,000 dollars 

Composition of a Typical Unhulled Barley. — From a comparative 
study of a numlier of samples of American barley the following numbers are 
regarded as typical of the composition of the unhulled barley grown in the 
United States: 

Weight of 100 kernels, 4-53 grams 

Moisture, 10.85 percent 

Protein, 11.00 " 

Ether extract, 2.25 " 

Crude fiber, 3.85 " 

Ash, ■ 2.50 " 

Starch and sugar, etc., 69.55 " 

217 



2l8 



CEREAL FOODS. 



The important points brought out in the above data are that the percentage 
of fiber in the unhulled barley is less than one-half that of the unhulled 
oat, as stated further on, while the percentage of ether extract is only about 
one-half that of the unhulled oat, and the protein is also decidedly less than 
in the whole oat. 

As has been stated, barley is not A'ery generally used in this country for 
human food, but is used in this and other countries as an ingredient of soup. 




30 





Fig. 22. — Barley Starch. X 200. — {Bureau of Chemistry.) 



Protein of Barley. — The following protein compounds are found in bar- 
ley in proportionate weight to the total weight of the seed: 

Leucosin, 0.30 percent 

Hordein, 4.00 " 

Edestin, 1.95 " 

Proteose, 1.95 " 

Insoluble protein, 4.50 " 

As seen from the above table the most important of the soluble proteins is 
hordein, which in quantity is almost equal to the insoluble protein of the 
barley grain. The starch granules of barley are recognized by their dis- 
tinctive shape and size, as revealed by the microscope. A typical micro- 
photographic view of barley starch is shown in Fig. 22. 



BUCKWHEAT. 219 

BUCKWHEAT {Polygonum jagopyrum L.). 

Buckwheat is usually classed with the cereals, but botanically it does not 
belong to the order of true grasses to which the cereals belong. 

Buckwheat is commonly grown in many parts of the United States, and its 
seed is highly prized for bread and cake making purposes. The buckwheat 
is ground and the outer black tough hull separated, and the flour is used 
chiefly for making hot breakfast cakes which are much prized throughout 
the country. Properly ground buckwheat flour has a more or less dark tint, 
due to fine particles of the outer envelope which escape the bolting process. 

Acreage and Yield of Buckwheat. — This crop is not grown in many states. 
New York, Pennsylvania, and Michigan produce the largest quantities. The 
statistical data for buckwheat grown in the United States in 1909 are as follows: 

Acreage, 834,000 

Yield per acre, 20.9 bushels 

Production, 1 7,438,000 " 

Price per bushel, 60. g cents 

Total value, 12,189,000 dollars 

Composition of Buckwheat Flour. — The composition of finely bolted 
buckwheat llour is as follows: 

Moisture, II .89 percent 

Protein 8.75 " 

Ether extract, 1.58 " 

Ash, 1.85 

Fiber, .52 " 

Starch and sugar 75-41 " 

Calories per gram, 3,854 

The above is the composition of a white flour more finely ground and bolted 
than is advisable for palatable purposes. In the grinding of the above flour 
the germ, which contains a large part of the ether extract, is eliminated and also 
a large quantity of the bodies rich in protein. The composition of a less 
highly refined flour and one which is more palatable and more nutritious is 
given in the following data: 

Moisture, 11. 19 ])erccnt 

Protein, 9.81 " 

Ether extract, 2.33 " 

Ash, 1.53 " 

Fiber, .73 " 

Starch and ^ugar, 74.41 " 

Calorics per gram, 3-954 

Milling Process. — In the preparation of the so-called highest grade of buck- 
wheat flour, that is, that which is most carefully ground and thoroughly bolted, 
the process employed is as follows: During the process of milling the buck- 
wheat grains pass to a receiving separator which removes all the coarse par- 
ticles, stones, straws, etc., by means of a series of sieves. At the same time 



220 CEREAL FOODS. 

any dust which they contain is blown out by a current of air. The sifted 
grains pass next to the scouring machines, in which they are thoroughly 
•scoured, cleaned, and polished. From these machines the grains pass to a 
separator containing magnets, by means of which any pieces of metal, in the 
form of nails, screws, pieces of wire, etc., are removed. 

The grains next pass through a steam dryer for removing the greater portion 
of the water employed for the scouring. As soon as they are dry they are 
attain treated to a blast of air, which removes any dirt, dust, or light particles 
which may have been detached during the process of drying. The grains 
next pass to the shelling rolls, where the greater part of the outer hulls is re- 
moved. This process is accomplished by means of an apparatus which is 
called a sieve scalper. After the separation of the outer hulls the residue of 
the material passes to a drying chamber, where the moisture is reduced to 
about lo percent, thus insuring the keeping qualities of the flour. After dry- 
inc^ the grains are ready for the rolls. After entering the rolls the process is 
practically the same as that which is employed in milling wheat, consisting 
of a series of breaks and reductions, with the attendant bolting and grading, 
and this process is prolonged until the flour is practically removed from the 
feed or middhngs. The sifting cloths used in the bolting of buckwheat flour 
are somewhat coarser than those for wheat, and this allows some of the dark 
particles of the inner hulls to pass into the flour, which gives it a dark color 
on baking. It is quite possible to make a buckwheat flour as white as that 
from wheat, but in this country the public taste requires a darker product, so 
that the white flour does not readily sell. The requisite degree of darkness is 
secured by using bohing cloths which will allow a part of the inner hulls 
(middlings) to pass into the flour. Two grades of flour are generally produced 
— a whiter one in which finer cloths are used, and a darker flour made by using 
coarser bolting cloths, allowing larger quantities of middlings to pass through. 
The outer hulls which are first removed are used for fuel, although from their 
composition it is seen that they contain a large quantity of carbohydrates and 
mit^ht be very profitably used in connection with some highly nitrogenous 
food, such as cottonseed meal or flaxseed meal for feeding cattle. The 
middlings are used principally as cattle food, and especially by dairymen. 

The above process, while it makes a white and fine-looking flour, is not to be 
compared with the meal made in the old-fashioned way of grinding between 
stones and separating the principal part of the outer hull by bolting. This old- 
fashioned flour is more nutritious, that is, it contains more fat and protein, 
has a greater fuel value, or in other words has a greater number of calories 
and makes a much more palatable cake than the fine modern flour. 

Buckwheat Cakes.— Buckwheat cakes are prepared from batter made by 
mixing buckwheat flour into a paste of the proper consistency, seeding it with 
yeast, and allowing it to remain in a moderately warm place until fermenta- 



BUCKWHEAT STARCH. 221 

tion takes place. The proteins of buckwheat have some agglutinating power, 
and thus, when treated as above, make a cake capable of a considerable degree 
of aeration. Baking powders are often used as a sul)stitute for yeast and per- 
mit of preparation in a few minutes instead of waiting for the fermentation 
above mentioned. The product made in this way cannot be considered so 
palatable or nutritious as the old-fashioned product. The batter is baked 
on a smooth hot iron or soapstone, polished and kept bright in order 
to prevent the sticking of the cake. The proper polishing of the iron 
is a better means of preventing sticking than greasing. The batter is 
poured over the smooth iron and is of a consistency to flatten out without 
help and to form a film over the baking iron, which produces a cake about one- 
fourth of an inch in thickness. The cake is to be turned as soon as the side 
in contact with the iron is brown. It is evident that in this baking process 
there can be no very profound change in the starch granules, but this does not 
appear to materially interfere with the digestibility of the product. Buck- 
wheat cakes are eaten hot, usually with butter and siruj). Maple sirup, sorghum 
sirup, or cane sirup in a pure state are highly prized for use with buckwheat 
cakes. These sirups are both condimental and nutritious. Mixed sirups 
made of glucose, melted brown sugar, or molasses, or mixtures of all these bodies 
are more commonly furnished to the consumer than the pure sirup mentioned 
above. Honey is also used very extensively as a condimental flavor for cakes 
of this kind. 

Adulterations. — There is probajjly no bread or cake making material 
which is subjected to more extensive adulteration than buckwheat Hour. 
Much of what is sold as buckwheat flour may be regarded as imitations 
of that substance. Mixtures of rye flour, Indian corn flour, wheat flour, and 
other ground cereals are used as a substitute for buckwheat. There can be no 
objection from the hygienic point of view to such substitutes but the use of 
these mixtures under the name of buckwheat can be regarded in no other 
light than as an unpardonable fraud. 

Detection of Adulterations. — There is rarely any mineral achiltcration 
practiced with buckwheat flour and if so it is easily detected by incineration. 
Any content of ash, unless baking powder has been used, al3o\'e 2 percent may 
be regarded with suspicion as indicating an admixture of some mineral sub- 
stance. The cereal flours used for adulteration are readily detected by the 
microscope in the hands of an experienced observer. The field of the micro- 
scope has only to be compared with the microscopic appearance of genuine 
buckwheat starch in order to detect the added substance. 

Buckwheat Starch. — The microscopic appearance of buckwheat starch 
is shown in the accompanying figure. The granules of buckwheat starch 
are very characteristic. They consist of chains or groups of more or less 
angular granules with a well defined nucleus, and without rings or with 



222 CEREAL FOODS. 

very faint rings. The contour of buckwheat starch is tnore angular than that 
of any other common cereal with the exception of maize and rice; it is this 
and the relative size which enable the observer to distinguish it from other 
starches. The size of the granules is quite uniform, varying usually only 
from lo to 15 microns* in diameter. In so far as the angular appearance 
is concerned the granules of buckwheat starch have a general resemblance 
to those of maize and rice and oats, but a comparison under the microscope 



<%-^ - - m-rf^^^^-K 



° " - ~ " ^Ife "^ ^ °%°o■'■^'• 






V ,-. - m^ %^ '^s- '-0 




Fig. 23. — Buckwheat Starch. X 200. — {Courtesy of Bureau of Chefnistry.) 

of the three starches reveals lines of distinction which with a little practice 
would prevent the observer from drawing a false conclusion. 

INDIAN CORN {Zea mays). 

Next to w^heat the most important cereal used as a human food in the United 

States is Indian corn. According to the magnitude of the crop, Indian corn 

is the leading cereal of the country. Statistical data on the production of 

Indian corn in the United States during 1909 are given in the following table: 

Acreage, 108,771,000 

Yield per acre, 25.5 bushels 

Production, 2,772,376,000 " 

Value per bushel, 59.6 cents 

Total value at farm, 1,652,822,000 dollars 

*A micron is one thousandth of a millimeter. 



MAIZE. 



223 



Indian corn is universally employed as food throughout all parts of the 
country, but more especially in the South, where the daily dietar}* is rarely 
complete without one or more meals in which Indian corn is served in some 
form or other. Although it is grown much more extensively in the North than 
in the South, it is not so generally used as human food. Indian corn grows in 
all kinds of soil and produces, under favorable conditions, large yields in all 
parts of the country. It is the most important agricultural crop of many states, 
namely, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas. It is planted in the 
late winter and spring in different parts of the country. The planting season 
varies from January in Florida to June in Maine and Minnesota and the earlier 
varieties will mature in 120 days. 

Maize is a crop which requires an abundance of rainfall and a high tem- 
perature during the growing season. Maize is planted in rows about three 
and one-half feet apart and in hills of about the same distance apart, or it may 
be drilled between the rows so that one stalk grows a distance of about from 
nine inches to a foot from its fellows. It requires constant cultivation during 
the early period of its growth and a careful preparation of the seed bed. Good 
farmers give from four to seven cultivations to the growing crop. The field 
must be kept free of weeds and in good tilth to secure the best results. 

Many hundreds of analyses of the maize kernel have been made, but a com- 
bination of them all in the following data may be regarded as typical of the 
Indian corn grown in this country. 

Weight of 100 kernels, 38 grams 

Moisture, io-75 percent 

Ether extract, 4.25 " 

Protein, 10.00 " 

Fiber, 1.75 

Ash, 1.50 " 

Starch and sugar, etc 71 -75 " 

The consideration of the above data shows that Indian corn is a ration in 
which the protein is rather low. In other words, the quotient of carbohydrates 
and fat divided by protein is rather large. It is a food product which is particu- 
larly well suited to furnish heat and energy and support a high degree of muscu- 
lar exertion. For this reason it is a food product which is particularly well 
adapted to men engaged in hard manual labor. 

Varieties. — There are many distinct varieties of Indian corn. Sturtevant 
has pulilished a description of several hundred. These varieties are classified 
under various subspecies. The polymorphic species, Zea mays, according to 
Sturtevant, can be divided into a number of groups which, on account of their 
well defined and persistent characters, may be considered as presenting specific 
claims and may properly receive specific nomenclature. The grouping adopted 
is founded upon the internal structure of the kernel for culti\-ated varieties, 
and the presence of a husk to the kernel in the assumed aboriginal form. 



224 CEREAL FOODS. 

Hence Sturtevant offers the names Zra tunicata for the husk-kernel forms^ 
Zea everta for the popcorn, Zea indurata for the flint corns, Zea indentata 
for the dent corns, Zea amyJacea for the soft corns, and Zea saccharata for 
the sweet corns. 

Argument in favor of the specific claims for these groups is based primarily 
on the convenience thus attained; secondarily, on the absence or rarity of in- 
termediate or connecting forms, so far as present data extend, and also on the 
antiquity of the separation. It seems almost certain that in the order of evolu- 
tion (excluding from consideration the puzzling sweet corn group) progress 






V-*v*'«»*': 



X 



Vi 



Fig. 24.— Section of Raw 1". <■•■ ' : mtesy of Bureau of Chemistty.') 

Shows cells with the small angular starch grains closely packed together within them. 

has been from the pops, through the flints and the dents, to the softs. Cer- 
tainly the soft corns in some of their varieties present a kernel that is larger, 
softer, and less fitted to the struggle with natural conditions than is the kernel 
from any of the other groups. Yet soft corns are the prevailing form in the 
mummy burials of Peru and of our Southwestern states. The popcorn, on 
the contrary, has stronger regerminative powers than have the other groups, 
is better fitted to contend against natural vicissitudes, and is the kind that has 
been reported as found growing wild in Mexico under the name of Coyote corn,. 
Zea canina Watts. 

Some of these subdivisions may not be accepted by botanists, but they are 



POPCORN. 



225 



convenient for purposes of description. The principal field varieties which 
are grown are the flint corn, Zea indurata, and the dent corn, Zea indentata. 



POPCORN. 

This variety of maize is used very largely in the United States as a delicacy, 
and with sugar and cream as a dessert. It is a hard, small-grained variety 
which has the propert}-, when heated, of exploding with a very great enlarge- 







^.^C.. 










Fig. 25. — Section of Popcorn in First Stage of Popping, Showing Partiai-lv Fxp.\nded 
Starch Grains and Ruptured Cell Walls. X 150. — {Courtesy 0/ Bureau of Chemistry.) 



ment of the starch grain, producing a soft and very delicate edible material 
which is highly prized. 

In the raw popcorn the starch grains are packed together very closely 
within the cells. When popping begins there is an expanding of the starch 
grains, producing a cavity nearly circular in form in each grain. This causes 
a rupturing of the cell walls, though fragments are plainly visible in the early 
stages. In the fully expanded or popped kernel the starch grains have ex- 
panded until each is about half or two-thirds as large as the original cells 
of the endosperm. The cell walls at this stage are practically obliterated 
as far as detection in a section is concerned. The exj)k)(ling of the starch 
grains is influenced by the water content of the kernel. It^ must not be too 
16 



226 CEREAL FOODS. 

wet nor too dry; about lo or 12 percent is the proper content of moisture. 
These changes are beautifully shown in the accompanying microphotographs, 
Figs. 24, 25, and 26, by Mr. Howard, of the Bureau of Chemistry. 







^/ l..-^^■ ^-f^^rt 



't^--./ 



i.rx:>vof-vf^v;^ 




^'U -- 



-"v^-^ 







Fig. 26.— Section of Fully Popped Popcorn. X 150.— ( Courtesy of Bureau of Chrmisfry.) 
The fully expanded starch grains are nearly half as large as the original cells in which they were 

contained. 



. SWEET CORN. 

This is a variety of maize which develops a high sugar content and is eaten 
"while the starch is yet soft, in other words, in an unripe state. It is a food 
product of immense importance in the United States, although almost unknown 
in Europe. The content of sugar varies from 5 to 8 percent in the fresh, soft 
kernel. The sugar which is present in the kernel rapidly disappears after the 
husking or removal from the stalk. In order to secure the maximum sweetness 
the corn should be cooked and eaten as soon as possible after removal from 
the stalk. Where it is not possible to do this it should be placed in cold stor- 
age after removal from the stalk and remain unhusked until it is ready for 
cooking. Green corn is universally eaten hot. It is usually cooked by boiling 
in water, although it may also be roasted before the fire. It has a high food 
value, and the composition of the grains of fresh, soft, green corn is shown in 
the following table: 



CANNED CORN. 2 2)^ 

Composition oj Fresh Green Indian Corn: 

Moisture, 73-oo percent 

Starch, 13-5° " 

Sugars, 6.00 " 

Protein, 5-oo " 

Crude fiber, 1.20 " 

Ash, 70 " 

Fat, 60 " 

Maize Proteins. — The proteins of maize are composed principally of twc- 
zeins. The two forms are differentiated by their behavior toward alcohol 
The first form constitutes the zein soluble in alcohol and the second the zeiP 
insoluble in alcohol. There are two other proteins in maize existing in smal 
cjuantities which have been named myosin and vitellin, respectively. Then 
is also a third unnamed variety and small quantities of albumin. 

Variation in Maize, under Different Climatic Conditions. — It is possi- 
ble that most of the varieties and subvarieties of maize are simply the existing 
standard varieties modified by changing environments.' There are certain 
conditions of climate, soil, and distribution of rainfall which tend to produce 
a large, starchy, soft grain, while other conditions tend to produce a small, hard 
grain richer in protein. The variations of importance are those of the car- 
bohydrates and the protein, which are complementary, since as the protein 
rises the carbohydrates fall in relative proportion. There is also a marked 
variation in the carbohydrates, due to variety and climatic conditions combined. 
It is, for instance, the increase of the sugar at the expense of the starch that 
produces the body known as sweet maize eaten in the green state, as already 
described. Even in the sweet variety the relative proportion of sugar varies 
in different localities and under different conditions of growth. 

Early Varieties. — There are certain varieties of maize which are of especial 
value on account of their early maturation. This is a property extremely val- 
uable in the sweet variety of maize or that eaten in the green state, since it is 
important to get these varieties into the market as early as possible and to con- 
tinue them as long as possible. This is secured by planting the early variety 
at the earliest date possible and planting later maturing varieties at intervals 
thereafter. By the selection cf varieties of different periods of maturing it is 
possible in the climate of Washington to offer green corn from neighboring 
fields on the market from July until the advent of a killing frost which is usually 
the last of October or first of November. This gives a period of nearly four 
months during which the green corn may be delivered to the local market. 
Further south the period of supply is longer. 

Canned Corn. — Immense cjuantities of green corn are grown for the pur- 
pose of canning in order to supply the market during the closed season. The 
canning industry for green corn is located chiefly in the north. In the eastern 
states the industry is of great importance, from Maryland to Maine. The 



228 CEREAJL FOODS. 

northern-grown corns are often preferred as they are supposed to be sweeter 
and more palatable. In the central western states, northern Indiana, Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin, northern Illinois, and Iowa are the principal centers of the 
canning industry, although it is practised to a greater or less extent in almost 
all parts of the country. 

Adulterations of Canned Com. — Unfortunately in the canning process 
of corn additions have been made to the product which are of an objectionable 
nature. Chief among these is the use of bleaching agents such as sulfur in 
the form of burnt sulfur or of sulfite or bisulfite of soda or potash. These 
bleaching agents impart to the corn a white color which some consumers prefer, 
but at the expense of introducing a substance which must be regarded as delete- 
rious to health. Still more objectionable is the practice of using saccharin in- 
stead of sugar as a sweetening agent. Saccharin is a coal tar product which 
has an intense, sweet taste, very persistent, and when used alone becomes dis- 
agreeable. A. very small quantity of it is sufficient to impart a very sweet 
taste to the canned corn at a much less expense than could be secured by using 
the pure sugar. This form of adulteration is extremely reprehensible both be- 
cause it deceives the consumer and adds a substance which by most hygienists 
is regarded as prejudicial to health. The bleaching agent and the artificial 
sweetener are wholly unnecessary. The manufacturers of sweet corn are 
expected to use the best and freshest and sweetest materials and cannot be ex- 
cused for tampering with them in any way which either produces deception or 
injury to health. 

Sugar added to make an ordinary corn taste like sweet corn is to be regarded 
as an adulteration unless its use is noted on the label. 

Maize starch is also often added to sweet corn at the time of canning and 
this practice can only be regarded as an adulteration. 

Detection of Adulterations in Sweet Corn. — Test jor Suljiirous Acid. — 
To about 25 grams of the sample (with the addition of water, if necessary) 
placed in a 200-c.c. Erlenmeyer flask, add some pure zinc and several cubic 
centimeters of hydrochloric acid. In the presence of sulfites, hydrogen sulfid 
will be generated and may be tested for with lead paper. Traces of metallic 
sulfids are occasionally present in vegetables, and by the above test will indi- 
cate sulfites. Hence positive results obtained by this method should be veri- 
fied by the distillation method.* It is always advisable to make the quan- 
titative determination of sulfites, owing to the danger that the test may be 
due to traces of sulfids. A trace is not to be considered sufficient as indicat- 
ing either a bleaching agent or a preservative. 

Detection of Saccharin, f — Add from 25 to 40 c.c. of water to about 20 grams 
jf the sample; macerate and strain through mushn; acidify with 2 c.c. of 

* U. S. Dept. of Agri., Bureau of Chemistry Bulletin 107, Revised, page 187. 
li Ibid., page 182. 



STARCH OF INDIAN CORN. 



229 



sulfuric acid (i to 3) and extract with ether. Separate the ether layer, allow 
the ether to evaporate spontaneously, and take up the residue with water. If 
saccharin be present its presence will be indicated by the sweet taste imparted 
to the water. To confirm this test add from one to two grams of sodium 
hydroxid, and place the dish in an oil bath. Maintain the temperature of 
the oil at 250° C. for 20 minutes, when the saccharin will be converted 
into salicylic acid. After cooling and acidifying with sulfuric acid, extract 
in the usual way and test for salicylic acid. This test, of course, presupposes 
the absence of salicylic acid in the original sample. If salicvlic acid is present 
in the original sample it must be removed before making the test for saccharin. 






o v^ 



O o 



03 


















I 0^ 



Fig. 27. — Indian Corn Starch. X 200. — (Btofau of Chemistry.) 



Starch of Indian Com. — Maize starch has characteristics which enable 
it to be easily detected by the microscope. The granules of this starch are of a 
more uniform size than those of wheat, being from 20 to 30 microns in 
diameter. Occasionally very much smaller granules occur which probably 
are more of the original size and which have been arrested in growth by the 
ripening of the grain. The granules of maize starch are more or less polyhedral 
in form with round angles. The only common cereal starch which they can 
be mistaken for is rice, but they are generally larger than the granules of rice. 
Under the microscope with ordinary light they give only the faintest sign of 



230 CEREAL FOODS, 

rings but show in most cases a well developed hilum, which is at times star- 
shaped or like an irregular cross, while at other times it has the appearance of 
a circular depression. The maize starch granule is a type of the angular, as 
the wheat is of the sphere or spheroid form. The characteristic appearance 
of maize starch kernels is shown in the accompanying Fig. 27. Viewed with 
polarized light the starch grains of Indian corn present deep, well marked 
crosses, which divide each grain into four distinct parts as shown in Fig. 28. 
It is interesting to note that the angularity of maize starch is greatly in- 
fluenced by the hardness of the kernels from which the grains are taken. 
The hard varieties, such as popcorn, have very angular grains while those 
from soft varieties have a great many almost spherical forms. 




Fig. 28.— Starch Grains of Indian Corn, undkr Polarized Light, y, 200.— {.Courtesy of 

Btireau of Chemisiiy.) 

Maize Flour {Corn Meal). — Formerly the maize kernel was ground between 
stones, bolted to remove the bran, and the maize flour or corn meal thus pro- 
duced used directly as a human food. Modern milling operations have 
changed the method of producing maize flour so that not only is the outer bran 
removed but also, to a large extent, the germ itself, thus diminishing the 
quantity of fat in the prepared meal. This is notably true of the maize 
flour which is prepared for exportation. Leaving in the flour such a large 
quantity of fat tends to produce rancidity during shipment. To avoid any 
change of a deleterious nature which the flour may undergo during shipment, 



COMPOSITION OF MAIZE FLOUR. 23 1 

it is also frequently kiln-dried l)efore being sent to foreign shores and even 
when intended for domestic consumption at points remote from the mill. 

While this preparation of maize flour is doubtless important for transporta- 
tion purposes, it impairs the palatability and nutritive value of the product. 
It is advisable to continue to have the maize flour prepared in the old-fashioned 
way and sent directly into consumption. 

Method of Preparation. — One method of preparing the maize flour is as 
follows: The grains are broken into large pieces and dried with steam heat at a 
temperature of from 105° to 1 10° C. (22r°-239° F.). The mass while still hot 
passes into a mill composed of two stones which revolve rapidly in opposite 
directions. The smaller portions of the meal, which have been reduced to a 
kind of gum by the high temperature, are separated by this process from the 
covering or the bran of the kernel. A small mass of the starchy matter leaves 
the mill in the form of small noodles, which are freed from any particles of 
bran by sifting. In this manner a mass is obtained which is quite free from 
fiber and fat. 

The composition of maize meal prepared by the above process is as follows: 

Moisture, 9.70 percent 

Protein, 1 2.68 " 

Ether extract, 1.19 " 

Ash, 60 " 

Fiber, -' 35 

Starch, sugar, and dextrin,.. — . . -. 7f -4'^ " 

This method of preparing maize meal is not used to any extent in this country, 
but is said to be commonly employed in Germany. 

Composition of Maize Flour. — The color of maize flour depends upon 
the color of the corn from which it is produced, — it may be white or yellow. 
The starch granules when heated in water to 62.5° C. swell uj^ and become 
deformed, except a few, usually the small ones, which resist the action of 
water at that temperature. The starch granules of maize flour under polar- 
ized light present a black cross, very marked and very distinct when the field 
is obscured. When viewed under polarized light with a selenite plate the 
starch grains of maize are colored red with a green cross or reciprocally, and 
this coloration is very brilliant. 

As has already been said, the composition of Indian corn meal made by the 
old-fashioned method of grinding and removing only the bran is practically 
that of the whole grain itself. 

The composition of degerminated maize meal (Indian corn flour) is 

shown by the following average data: 

Moisture, 12.57 percent 

Protein, 7.13 

Ether extract, 1.33 

Ash, _ .6 r 

Fiber, 87 

Starch and sugar, 7^-.36 

Calories calculated on the moist meal, 3^^37 



232 CEREAL FOODS. 

The above data show that the refined Indian corn meal has lost more than 
three-fourths of its fat, a large portion of its mineral matter, and also a very 
considerable proportion of its protein, due to the separation of the bran which 
is extremely rich in protein and the germ which is rich both in oil and protein. 
A mere glance at the data shows that this refined Indian corn meal is much less 
nutritious than the natural meal in so far as its content of tissue-forming bodies 
and its faculty to furnish heat and energy are concerned. In other words, the 
calories are very much lower than in the natural corn meal. This is another 
reason for urging our people to return to the consumption of the old-fashioned 
material. 

The Adulteration of Indian Corn Meal. — Owing to the cheapness of 
Indian corn in so far as is known there is no adulteration practiced. The 
refined Indian corn flour itself is sometimes used as an adulteration for buck- 
wheat flour, wheat flour, and other cereal flours, but has not itself been sub- 
jected to adulteration. 

Com Bread {Indian Corn Bread). — Corn bread is a very common diet 
among all classes of people in the southern states and also to a considerable 
extent in the north. 

Owing to the lack of agglutinating powers of the nitrogenous constituents of 
Indian corn flour, corn bread cannot be aerated or raised, as is the case with 
wheat bread. It is often eaten in an unleavened state. It may be partially 
leavened by the usual agent, namely, yeast or a chemical baking powder. 
Two varieties of bread are very commonly used, namely, that made of white 
flour or meal and that made of yellow. There is apparently no difference in 
the nutritive values of these two kinds. Some consumers prefer the white 
loaf and some the yellow. 

Composition of Indian Corn Bread. — The composition of bread depends 
upon whether the whole grain flour is used from which only the coarse bran 
has been removed by bolting or whether the decorticated and degerminated 
meal is used. In the first case bread is made richer in fat and protein and in 
the second case richer in starch. In the bread will also be found the materials 
used in its preparation, namely, salt, lard or other fats, milk, yeast, or baking 
powder residues. The best bread is made from the freshly ground flour of the 
whole grain from which only the outer covering, namely, the coarse bran has 
been removed. As offered at many of our hotels and some private houses, corn 
bread has been so manipulated as to lose a large part of its palatability, with- 
out any compensating improvement of its nutritive properties. 

OATS (Genus Avena). 

This cereal is an important food product, being used very largely in Europe, 
especially in Scotland, and also very extensively in this country as human food. 



OATS. 



233 



The chief use of oats is for cattle food, especially for horses. It is extraordi- 
narily rich in its nutritive constituents and, therefore, is prized highly as a food 
in the building and restoration of nitrogen tissues, such as the muscles. The 
variety in common cultivation is Avena saliva L. 

Oats are grown in almost every part of the United States, but chiefly in the 
northern and western portions. In the southern states the crop is planted in 
the late autumn or early winter. In the northern states it is chiefly a spring 
crop, being sown early in the spring as soon as the ground is in fair condition. 
The oat crop is one which requires a rather abundant and well-distrii)uted rain- 
fall. A spring drought is very detrimental to the growth of oats, much more 
so than wheat or rye. It is a crop which is well suited to be grown under 
irrigation. 

There are many varieties of oats in cultivation, but in general characteristics 
thev all correspond to one description. The husk adheres firmly to the grain, 
and when threshed the grain of a common variety of oat carries the first layer 
of husk or chaff with it. Oats, as bought in the market, therefore, consist not 
only of the kernel or grain but also of this outer, chaffy envelope. The magni- 
tude of the crop in the United States is very great, but only an inconsiderable 
proportion of the whole is used for human food, and this chiefly in some form 
of oatmeal. The statistics of the crop grown in the United States during 
1909 are given in the following table: 

Acreage, 33,204,000 

Yield per acre, bushels, 30.3 

Total yield, bushels, 1,007,353,000 

Price per bushel, cents, 4o-5 

Total value at farm, $408,1 74,000 

Ratio of Kernel to Hull, — Numerous examinations of unhuUed oats show 
that the average percentage of kernel to hull for 100 parts is as 73 to 27. In 
the oats grown in the western states the proportion of kernel is relatively higher 
and in the southern states lower. 

In the analytical process if the hull or chaff is ground with the grain the pro- 
portion of fiber or crude cellulose is very considerably higher than in the class 
of cereals ground without the chaff. The mean composition of unhuUed ker- 
nels of oats of American growth is represented by the following table: 

Weight of 100 unhullcd grains, 2.92 grams 

Moisture, 10.06 percent 

Protein, 12.15 " 

Ether extract, 4-33 " 

Crude fiber, 12.07 " 

Ash, 3-46 " 

Starch and sugar, 57-93 

A study of the above data shows that the tlour of unhulled oats is rich in fat, 
fiber, and ash. The large percentage of fiber and ash is due to a great degree 



234 



CEREAL FOODS. 



to the composition of the hulls or chaff. The fat or oil comes chiefly from the 
germ. 

Composition of Hulled Oats. — Inasmuch as the chaff is always separated 
from the oat flour when the latter is to be used for human food, the composition 
of the oat in the hulled state is of greater importance to the present purpose 
than in the unhuUed condition. The means of 179 analyses show the hulled 
oats to have the following composition: 

Moisture, 6.93 percent 

Protein, i4-3i 

Ether extract, 8.14 

Crude fiber, 1.38 

Ash, 2.15 

Starch and sugar, 67.09 

The removal of the hulls, as is seen, and the partially dried condition of the 
grain in the above analysis increases the percentage of other ingredients. 
The protein and fat are especially large in quantity. Oatmeals may be regarded 
as the richest of the cereal flours, both in protein and in oil. 

The Protein of Oat Kernels. — There are three principal products in the 
oat kernels characterized by their different degrees of solubility, namely, pro- 
tein soluble in alcohol, protein soluble in dilute salt solution, and protein soluble 
in alkali. The protein soluble in alcohol constitutes about 1.25 percent of 
the whole grain, the protein soluble in dilute salt solution about 1.5 percent, 
and the protein soluble in alkali the remainder, viz., 11.25 percent. The 
protein of oats has very little agglutinating power and, therefore, oat flour is 
not suitable for making bread, or rather it is very little used for that pur- 
pose. 

Oat Products. — As has been intimated before, the principal oat products, 
as far as food is concerned, are the various forms of oatmeal commonly classed 
as breakfast foods. These products are prepared in various forms of aggluti- 
nation and physical texture but if made from genuine oats, as there is little 
cause for doubt, they have essentially the same composition and nutritive power. 
It is doubtful if there is any preparation of oatmeal any more nutritious or 
palatable than the plain oat grain properly cooked. The forms in which the oat 
products are offered to the public are perhaps more convenient for use and in 
some cases byreuson of heating and preparation require less trouble, but other- 
wise they apparently have no advantage over the simple product. 

The mean composition of a number of oat flour products is shown in the 
following table: 

IMoisture, 7-66 percent 

Protein, i5-48 " 

Ether extract, 7-46 " 

Crude fiber, i-2o 

Ash, 1-29 ]' 

Starch and sugar, 67.61 



OAT PRODUCTS. 235 



In the dry substance : 



Protein, 16.77 percent 

Ether extract, 8.08 " 

Crude fiber, 1.38 " 

Ash, 1.94 " 

Starch and sugar, 73-20 " 

Calories, 4)875 

It is evident from the above average analysis that the products examined are 
made from the whole kernel without the removal of the germ but with a very 
careful removal of the hull and bran. The composition of these products 
compares very favorably with the typical composition of the kernel itself. 



.^^'^€^^■::. 




^^ c est: ^^ '^ o.r."^ .> V- s^-^'-^a'^ -t 







Fig. 29. — Oat Starch. X 200. — (Couytesy of Bureau of Chemistry.) 

These data show the high nutritive value of these oat products, both in respect 
of fat and protein. 

Adulterations. — There are very few adulterations of oatmeal. Fortunately 
the price of this cereal is such that the admixture of other cereals would not 
be profitable. Doubtless such admixtures have often been made but evidently, 
from the examination of the products upon the open market, they are not very 
frequent. The characteristic appearance of oat starch is shown in Fig. 29. 

Oat starch grains average about 10 microns in diameter. There are 
usually present some grains of somewhat oval shape, which assist in identi- 



236 CEREAL FOODS. 

fying oat products when present. The starch granules also have a tendency 
to agglutinate into masses of varying size, as shown in the photograph. 

Detection of Adulterations. — The adulteration of oatmeal with the flour 
of other cereals can easily be detected by the use of the microscope. Oat starch 
when highly magnified presents a peculiar cellular structure of pentagonal 
character which might be compared to the effect produced by grinding a large 
number of faces upon a precious stone. This peculiar appearance is caused 
by the tendency of the starch granules in oats to become compacted in 
large masses. The appearance of the separate granules and also the com- 
pact aggregate are shown in the figure on the preceding page. The large 
aggregated masses are of different sizes, ranging from .02 to 1.2 millime- 
ters in length. These masses are usually broken up by grinding or pressure 
and, therefore, are not found in very great abundance in the commercial 
oatmeal. When separated into single granules these are found to be irreg- 
ular in outline, due to the compression to which they have been subjected, 
more or less pentagonal instructure, and from .015 to .02 millimeter in diameter. 
The starch granules do not show any very marked characteristics under polar- 
ized light and have neither lines nor hilum. The above statements can easily 
be verified by any one who can operate an ordinary microscope, but before 
attempting to detect adulteration a careful examination of starch granules, 
prepared by the investigator himself, should be made. 

RICE {Oryza saliva). 
Rice is one of the most important food cereals. It furnishes a large part 
of the food of the inhabitants of China and Japan. It is a food rich in starch 
and poor in protein, and furnishes, therefore, heat and energy, and is well 
adapted for the nourishment of those engaged in hard labor or who undergo 
extreme physical exertion. The cultivation of rice is rapidly extending in 
the United States, especially in Louisiana and Texas. The statistical data 
relating to the rice crop for 1909 are as follows: 

Acreage, 720,225 acres 

Production, 24,368,000 bushels 

Yield per acre, 33-8 

Price per bushel, 79-4 cents 

Total value at farm, 19,341,000 dollars 

The adulteration of rice is confined to coating it with talc, paraffin, and 
glucose. The object of this treatment is to give a better appearance to the 
grain and to protect it from the ravages of insects. The use of indigestible 
substances such as talc and paraffin is scarcely justifiable. The starch granules 
of rice have distinctive properties which enable them to be readily recog- 
nized under the microscope, as shown in Fig. 30. 

The rice starch grains are polygonal in form and have sharp angles. The 



EYE. 



237 



grains vary in size from 2 to 10 microns, though the latter size is seldom 
reached, the most of the grains l)eing about 6 microns. The hilum is seldom 
visible. The grains occur in the rice kernels mostly in groups of a consider- 
able number of the individual grains forming starch masses of ovoid or angular 
form. 

RYE. 

This is the source of the principal supply of bread in many F.uropean coun- 
tries, but is not extensively used in the United States except among our citizens 
of foreign birth. It is also extensively used for making whisky. Rye belongs 



/ 






<< J-» 











Fig. 30. — Rice Starch. X 200. — {Courtesy of Bureau of Chemistry.^ 

to the genus Secale. Only one species {Secale cereale L.) is commonly culti- 
vated, but this species has a great many different varieties or races. Accord- 
ing to the time of sowing there are two great classes of rye, namely, that 
planted in the autumn or early winter and that planted in the early spring, 
generally known respectively as winter and spring rye. This is one of the 
hardiest of cereals, and grows well in all locations where wheat and other 
common cereals flourish. The area planted in rye in the United States in 
1909 and the quantity harvested are given in the following table: 

Acreage 2,006,000 

Yield per acre, 16.4 bushels 

Production, 32,239,000 " 

Price per bushel, 73.9 cents 

Total value at farm, 23,809,000 dollars 



238 



CEREAL FOODS. 



Composition of Rye. — From a study of many hundreds of analyses of rye 
of American origin the following table may be given as approximating the com- 
position of a typical American rye : 

Weight of loo kernels, 2.50 grams 

Moisture, 10.50 percent 

Ether extract, 1.50 

Protein, 12.25 

Fiber, 2.10 

Starch and sugar, 7i-75 

Ash, 1.90 

The percentage of moisture in American grown rye is usually less than that 
of European origin. The American rye, also, has smaller kernels as a rule 







'^'^^^.. 



^^, 



.o-:-. &6^;, 







' ^: "c^ °' 



^:^^^--^^-y:i? 



■-0 



Fig. 31. — Rye Starch, y 200.— {Comicsy 0/ Bureau of Chemistry.) 

than that of foreign growth. In the content of protein the American samples 
of rye are fully equivalent to those of foreign origin, and in their mean com- 
position, except as noted above, do not differ greatly from that of standard 
varieties collected abroad. 

Protein of Rye. — As is the case with other cereals more than one .nitrog- 
enous constituent exists in the rye. Three of the principal ones have been 
separated and named as follows: leucosin, gliadin, and edestin. Other 
proteins belonging to the globulin, albumin, and proteose family are also found 
in small proportions. The gliadin of rye resembles in its chemical and physical 



WHEAT. 



239 



properties the gliadin of wheat. There is, however, in the rye no protein com- 
pound corresponding to the glutenin of wheat, and, tlierefore, rye flour does not 
form a gkiten similar in quahty to that of wiieat, although it comes nearer to 
doing so than an}- other cereal. The gliadin of rye is soluble in alcohol, the 
leucosin of rye is soluble in water, and the edestin is soluble in a salt solution. 

In a tyy)ical sample of American rye there will be found about 5.i6i)ercent 
of gliadin, 2.27 percent of edestin and proteose, 0.55 percent of leucosin, and 
3.14 percent of protein soluble in salt solution. 

Adulteration of Rye Flour.— Rye Hour is frequently adulterated by the 
admixture of Hours of other cereals. Real rye flour is distinguished by the 
character of the starch granules, as showai in Fig. 31. 

Rye starch grains are lenticular in form, and the largest grains are of about 
50 microns diameter. They average somewhat larger than wheat starch 
grains and are characterized by many of the large grains having a fissure in 
the form of a slit, cross, or star, which is rare in wheat and barley. The rings 
and hilum are indistinctly seen in some of the grains. 

Rye Bread. — This bread may be made leavened or unleavened, since the 
analogy in the property of its protein to that of wheat renders the leavening of 
r^-e bread somewhat more easy of accomplishment than that of the other cereals, 
with the exception of wheat. 

Rye bread made of pure rye flour has a dark color, sometimes almost black. 
It is often baked long in advance of the time of eating and keeps well, is highly 
nutritious, and is the staple bread of many European countries. 

A partial rye flour bread is made by mixing rye flour with other flours, such 
as wheat, barley, Indian corn, etc., and this is the kind which is commonly used 
in this country and in many portions of Europe where the light-colored breads 
are preferred to the dark. 

The large consumption of bread made from rye and Indian corn indicates 
that even if the supply of wheat should become limited there is no reason to fear 
a famine of bread. It would be easy to substitute bread made wholly or in part 
of Indian corn and rye for that made wholly of wheat and thus to supply practi- 
cally any demand for bread which the increasing population of the earth may 
make. 

WHEAT (Genus Triticum). 

In respect of human nutrition wheat is the most important of the cereals. 
It is grown in the temperate regions of almost every country, but does not 
flourish in tropical or subtropical countries. 

In the United States the wheat is divided in respect of the period of its growth 
into two great classes, namely, winter or fall planted wheat and spring or 
spring planted wheat. Winter wheat is usually planted from September to 
November and spring wheat from the last of March to the last of April. 



240 CEREAL FOODS. 

In this country wheat is not cultivated, that is, there is no cultivation of the 
soil after seeding. The soil is, however, plowed and harrowed before plant- 
ing. In the winter wheat regions the harvesting is in the month of June, 
though in the southern localities it comes somewhat earlier and in the more 
northern localities may extend into July. In the spring wheat regions the har- 
vesting is from the last of July to the middle or end of August. The statis- 
tics of wheat grown in the United States during 1909 are as follows: 

WiNTEB. Spring. 

Acreage, 28,330,000 18,393,000 

Yield per acre (bushels), 15.8 15.8 

Total yield (bushels), 446,366,000 290,823,000 

Total value at farm, $459,15.1,000 $270,892,000 

Price per bushel (cents),. .. . 102.9 93- 1 

AH the different varieties of wheat which are now known are cultivated. 
The simplest form, namely, the one grain wheat is the only one which grows 
wild, and the origin of the other varieties of wheat is unknown. 

Botanists recognize three species, namely — Species i, one grain wheat 
{Triticuni monococcum Lam.) ; species 2, Polish wheat {Triticitmpolonicum L.) ; 
species 3, common wheat {Triticiim sativum Lam.). All of these species are 
distinct, especially the third one, of which the most valuable variety is the 
common wheat, Triticiim vulgare Vill. 

The quality and properties of wheat depend more upon the environment in 
which it is grown than upon the species to which it belongs. There is perhaps 
no other field crop in which the environment, namely, condition of the soil, 
temperature, precipitation, etc., makes a greater difference than in wheat. In 
general, the environment and the species together produce two kinds of wheat 
as far as milling and bread making are concerned, namely, the soft or starchy 
wheat and the hard or glutinous wheat. In the first variety there is a larger 
percentage of starch in relation to the content or protein matter than in the 
second. Taking the wheat as a whole its average composition is shown in the 
following table: 

Weight of 100 kernels, 3.85 grams 

Moisture, 10.60 percent 

Protein, 12.25 " 

Ether extract, 1.75 

Crude fiber, 2.40 " 

Ash, .' 1.7s 

Carbohydrates other than crude fiber, 71-25 " 

Dry gluten, 10-25 " 

Moist gluten, 26.50 " 

In regard to protein American wheat, as a rule, is quite equal to that of for- 
eign origin. This is an important characteristic when it is remembered that 
both the milling and food value of a wheat depend largely upon the nitrog- 
enous matter which is present. It must not be forgotten, however, that merely 
a good percentage of protein is not of itself a sure indication of the milling value 



GLUTEN. 241 

of a wheat. The ratio of gluten to the other protein constituents in a wiieat is 
not always constant, but it is the gluten content of a flour on which the bread 
making qualities chiefly depend. 

Gluten. — The principal part of the protein in wheat is known as gluten. 
Gluten as such does not exist in the wheat but is formed when the pulverized 
wheat, that is, the wheat flour, is mixed with water by the union of two elements 
in the wheat, namely, gliadin, which is soluble in dilute alcohol and forms nearly 
half of the whole protein matter of the wheat kernel, and glutenin, a compound 
insoluble in water, dilute salt solutions, and dilute alcohol and which is quite as 
abundant as gliadin in the wheat kernel. In fact, the gliadin and the glutenin 
together make the whole of the protein, except a little over one per cent. 

There are three other forms of protein, as pointed out by Osborne, in the 
wheat kernel, making altogether nearly i^ percent of total protein content. 
The average quantity of these compounds in the protein of wheat is as follows. 

Constituents ; , 

Globulin, 0.70 percent 

Albumin, 0.40 '" 

Proteose, . . . ' - 0.30 " 

Gliadin,. 4.25 " 

Glutenin, 4.35 " 

10.00 

Starch in the Wheat Kernel. — The most abundant constituent of the 
wheat kernel is the starch. The appearance of wheat starch is shown in the 
figure. Wheat starch grains ordinarily show the rings and hilum in a few 
cases only under the most favorable conditions, though there are sometimes 
cases where the striations are quite distinct. The granules of starch vary 
greatly in size, being from 5 to 10 microns in diameter. There are, in 
fact, two kinds of granules in wheat starch, one having the appearance 
under the microscope of irregularly rounded particles in sections like a cir- 
cular disk, and the other of elongated particles with a distinct hilum, as 
shown in Fig. 32. The appearance of the granules under polarized light is 
shown in Fig. ^t^. 

Wheat starch is not very commonly used for commercial purposes but is 
highly prized for some things, especially in the sizing of textile fabrics. The 
germ in wheat is particularly rich in oil and the bran or outside covering m 
protein. The common idea that the bran is composed mostly of silicious mat- 
ter is wholly erroneous. On the contrary the bran is a highly nutritious food, 
and the objection to it for human food is mostly of a mechanical nature. 

Adulterations. — Wheat grains are never adulterated but they may some- 
times contain dirt and foreign seeds, due to the growth of some body in connec- 
tion with the wheat itself. 

Standards. — Wheal, commercially, is sold under three standards, namely, 
17 



242 CEREAL FOODS. 

one, two, three. The difference is an arbitrary one and not founded upon any 
chemical data but wholly upon the physical appearance, degree of moisture, 
and freedom from extraneous admixtures. 

Wheat Products. — The principal product of wheat is flour. The milling 
process for wheat is highly interesting both from a chemical and technical point 
of view, but cannot be described in full in this manual. The old-fashioned 
milling of wheat, namely, pressing between stones and separation of the flour 
by bolting has been almost entirely superseded by the modern milling with 
metal rollers. 

Altogether nearly a hundred different products are made incident or final 







a . o' 



d)0 ■ oQo ^^ 



'a 



-o 



" c 






Fig. 32. — Wheat Starch. /. zu^j --{^Loiirtesy of Biueau 0/ Chemistry.) 

to the milling of wheat. Only those products, however, which are used for 
human food interest us at the present time. 

Chief Varieties of Flour. — The highest grade of wheat flour is known 
usually by the term "patent"; a lower grade is known as "bakers' flour" and 
a third as low grade flour. A barrel of flour weighs 196 pounds and requires 
about 258 pounds of wheat for its manufacture. The whole product from the 
258.35 pounds of wheat is shown in the appended table. 

In general it may be said that about 75 percent of the weight of the wheat 
is obtained as merchantable flour of some kind, about 60 to 70 percent being 



SPECIAL NAMES OF FLOUR. 243 

good grade or straight flour. About 24 percent of the weight of the wheat is 
obtained as, cattle food and about i percent is lost during the process of 
manufacture. 

Product. Pounds. Percentage. 

Patent flour, 149-37 57-82 

Bakers' flour, 29.13 11.28 

Low grade flour, i7-5o 6.77 

Total flour, 196.00 75-87 

Bran, 45.56 17.64 

Shorts, 9.80 3.79 

Screenings, 4.99 i .93 

Waste, 2.00 0.77 

Total weight, 258.35 100.00 

Special Names of Flour. — In addition to the classification above mentioned 
other names are used in many commercial senses for flour. These additional 




Fig. 33. — Wheat Starch under Polarized Light. X 200. — (Courtesy of Bureau 0/ Chetnistry). 



names are "family," "red dog," "blended," gluten, etc. Many flours are 
also named after the name of the mill or locality or bear simply fanciful 
names. 

Graham Flour. — This term was originally applied to the coarse, unbolted 
flour which was made by grinding the whole wheat. The name, therefore, 



244 CEREAL FOODS. 

should be applied to all flour made from well grained wheat, ground, and un- 
bolted. Most of the flours however, which are sold nowadays as graham flours 
are produced by a more or less perfect bolting process. From the above it is 
seen that true graham flour will contain practically the same constituents as 
the wheat kernel itself and in the same proportion and have the same composi- 
tion as wheat. 

Entire Wheat Flour. — This name would naturally carry the idea of a flour 
corresponding to the graham flour above mentioned. It is, however, a mis- 
named trade-mark for a flour produced in a special manner which consists in 
the removal of the outer or purely branny covering of the grain. " Entire 
wheat" flour, therefore, contains all the ingredients of wheat grains, save 
those which are found in the outer branny covering. 

Gluten Flour. — This is a name applied to a flour which is produced by remov- 
ing the greater part of the starch from ordinary flour. It is especially recom- 
mended for the use of diabetic patients. Unfortunately, the name is very 
commonly applied to flours made from wheat containing a little higher per- 
centage of protein than the ordinary and sometimes even to an ordinary wheat 
flour. A gluten flour should contain not less than 35 percent of protein. 

Mixed Flour. — The act of Congress of June 13, 1898, defines mixed flour and 
imposes a tax upon the manufacture, sale, importation, and exportation of 
that article. The maximum tax laid upon mixed flour is 4 cents on a barrel of 
196 pounds. The total number of barrels of mixed flour returned for taxation 
for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909, was 195; half barrels, 83,648; quarter 
barrels, 30,067; eighth barrels, 35,789. The total quantity of mixed flour 
returned for taxation during the year was 8,215,167 pounds. The above data 
show that the amount of mixed flour offered for sale is a very small part of the 
total flour manufactured in the United States. It may be that there is a great 
deal of flour mixed and sold in violation of the law since it is quite impossible 
in the inspection of the stores to supervise all the transactions of business deals 
in flour; especially is it believed that rye flour and buckwheat flour are often 
adulterated by mixing with them the flour of other cereals. This adulteration 
is not one which is at all injurious to health but is simply practiced for the pur- 
pose of making a rye or buckwheat flour look whiter or because the added flours 
are cheaper than the real rye or buckwheat. 

Properties Affecting the Commercial Value of Flour. — Aside from its 
nutritive properties wheat flour has a commercial value depending upon its. 
color and texture and upon the gluten which it contains. The character of 
gluten also varies largely in different varieties of wheat and in wheat grown 
in different localities. A chemical examination will not always tell the bread 
making properties of a flour, and the character of the bread itself depends often 
quite as much upon the skill of the baker as upon the flour which is used. 

In cases where loaves are sold by weight, a flour with a high percentage of 



SEPARATION OF GLUTEN. 



245 



tenacious gluten is often preferred, since it permits of the forming of loaves 
containing a maximum percentage of water. With a flour rich in gluten it is not 
difficult to make a palatable loaf which does not bear any evidence of an excess 
of water, containing as much as 40 percent of moisture. The baking of bread 
is an art which is most successfully practiced by professionals, and the American 
method of home bread making does not always lead to the happiest results. 

The ideal flour for bread making is one which contains a sufficient quantity 
of gluten to make a porous and spongy loaf, but not one which permits an ex- 
cessive quantity of moisture to be incorporated in the loaf itself. 

Average Composition of Different Varieties of Flour. — Analyses of a 
great number of samples of dift'erent varieties of flours lead to the following data, 
which may be accepted as a very close approximation of the average variety of 
different grades of flour offered upon the American market: 





w 


2 ^ 


?t 


H '^ 


•i 






* 


* 

K d 




K 


Name of Flour. 





Wo 

ox 












< 


" 






as 

c 

< 




Percl. 


Pent. 


Percl. 


Percl. 


Percl. 


Percl. 


Percl. 


Percl. 


Percl. 


Percl. 




Patent flour, 


12.77 


10.55 


9.62 


25-97 


9-99 


1.02 


0-44 


74.76 


76.14 


0.21 


3.S58.0 


Bakers' and family flour, . . 


11.69 


12.28 


11.20 


34-70 


13.07 


1-30 


0-57 


73-87 


74.98 


0.22 


3.929-6 


Common market flour, . . . 


12.28 


io.i8 


9.28 


24-55 


9.21 


1.30 


0.61 


75-63 


76-53 


0.28 


3-882.5 


Miscellaneous flour 


12.73 


10.45 


9-52 


26.80 


10.22 


1.08 


0.49 


75-23 


76-15 


0.25 


3,846-3 


Self-raising flour, . . 


11-45 


9-75 


8.89 


26.97 


9-65 


0.70 


4-45 


73-66 


74-51 


0.21 


3,719-3 


Gluten flour, 


12.99 


13-30 


12.13 


39.68 


14. 84 


1-05 


0-55 


72.11 


73-28 


0.32 


3.891-I 





Separation of Gluten. — The character of a wheat flour, as has already 
been intimated, is measured largely by the quantity of gluten which it may 
contain. The separation of gluten may be accomplished by any one, even 
without a chemical training, by a little practice. It is, therefore, one of the 
tests for the value of a wheat flour which can be easily and generally applied. 
The principle of separation of the gluten rests upon the fact that when wheat 
flour is moistened and kneaded into a sticky mass it may be washed with pure 
water with constant kneading until nearly all the starch has been removed from 
the mass. Meanwhile only that portion of the protein is removed which is 
soluble in the water and the gluten which is formed by the process of kneading 
remains as a sticky mass. When this moist mass is kneaded and rolled until 
all the moisture is taken out of it that can be removed in this way, it may be 
weighed and the proportion of moist gluten in the sample determined. It may 
then be placed in an oven and dried, and then the proportion of dry gluten se- 
cured. The following method is one which is easily applied. Place 10 grams 
of the sample in a porcelain dish and moisten with from 6 to 7 cubic centi- 

* In the first of these columns the starch is calculated by difference, assuming the pro- 
tein to be the quantity of nitrogen present multiplied by 6.25. and in the second column 
the figure is obtained in the same way, using 5.70 as the protein factor. 



246 



CEREAL FOODS. 



meters of water, knead, and allow to stand for an hour. Work into a ball, 
being careful that none of the material adheres to the dish. Holding the mass 
in the hand knead it in a slow stream of cold water until the starch and all solu- 
ble matter are washed out. Place the ball of gluten thus formed in cold water 
and allow to stand for one hour; remove from water, press as dry as possible 
between the hands, roll into a ball, and weigh in a flat-bottomed dish. After 
weighing, place the ball of moist gluten in the drying oven for twenty hours; 
cool and weigh. 

Gluten Tester. — A simple test for determining the approximate per- 




FlG. 34. — Kedzie's Farinometer showing the Parts.— {Bii//f/iH is, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



centage of gluten in flour may be used, based upon the principle that the 
viscosity of dough is a measure of its practical gluten content. The name 
applied to a gluten tester is farinometer. 

A convenient form of farinometer devised by Kedzie is shown in the 
accompanying figure. It is patterned somewhat upon the plan of Jago's 
viscometer. The instrument is shown in parts in Fig. 34. The instru- 
ment as in use is exhibited in Fig. 35. Parts shown in Fig. 34 are as fol- 
lows: No. I is the stand or support of the parts. No. 2 is the cap of 



BLEACHING OF FLOUR. 



H7 



No. I, and discloses the half-inch opening (half closed by the slide) 
through which the dough is forced by the pressure of the rod No. 4. 
l"he slide by which this opening is closed is plainly shown; also the socket 
for holding No. 3, No. 3 is a brass 
tube 3 inches high and i inch inter- 
nal diameter, with a small knob to fit 
into the notched opening in the side 
of the socket seen in No. 2, to hold 
No. 3 firmly in place. No. 4 is a 
steel rod \f inch in diameter and 12 
inches long, with a thin brass cap i 
inch in diameter, beveled slightly so 
that the front edge fills the barrel of 
No. 3 without friction, and is yet 
dough-tight. Near the top the rod 
is marked into inch spaces. 

In using the farinometer two points 
are considered : 

1. The water-absorbing power of 
a flour, or the percentage of water 
it will take up to form a dough of a 
certain consistency. 

2. The viscosity of such dough, or 
its resistance to change of form under 
a uniform force; e. g., the length of 
time in seconds required to force a 
cylinder of dough i inch high through 
a hole one-half inch in diameter under 
the pressure of a vertical steel rod 13 
inches long and weighing 25 pounds 
avoirdupois. 

Bleaching of Flour. — For- 
merly flour was extensively bleached 
for the purpose of making an in- 
ferior article resemble a superior 
one. By this means a greater per- 
centage of the flour produced can be 
rated as of first quality. The oxids 

of nitrogen developed by electrical discharges are the princij)al l:)leaching 
agents employed, and add to the floiu* a suljstance which ma}- be injurious to 
health. Under the Food and Drugs Act the bleaching of floiu" for interstate 
commerce has practically ceased. 

Adulteration of Flour. — The adulteration of wheat flour is not prac- 




FiG. ^5.— Kf.dzie's Farinometer in I'si;.- 
{BHllctin 13, U. S. Dcpt. of Agricultuie.) 



248 CEREAL FOODS. 

ticed to any extent in this country. The most common adulteration arises 
from grinding with wheat foreign seeds and other foreign matter, rust, smut, 
etc., which may be present in the grain. Other adulterations are the mixture 
with wheat flour of the starch or flour of maize and other cereals. The 
adulteration with any form of terra alba or white powdered earthy substance 
is exceedingly rare. Although some attempts have been made to introduce 
such adulterations in this country they have not reached any commercial 
success. The adulterations, with the exception of those with white earthy 
powders, are most readily ascertained by microscopic examination for for- 
eign matters and other varieties of starch than grow naturally in the wheat. 

Standard. — The United States standard for flour is as follows: 

Flour is the fine, sound product made by bolting wheat meal and contains 
not more than thirteen and one-half (13.5) percent of moisture, not less than 
one and twenty-five hundredths (1.25) percent of nitrogen, not more than 
one (i.o) percent of ash, and not more than fifty hundredths (0.50) percent of 
fiber. 

Graham flour is unbolted wheat meal. 

Whole wheat flour, entire wheat flour, improperly so called, is fine wheat 
meal from which a part of the bran has been removed. 

Gluten flour is the product made from flour by the removal of starch, and 
contains not less than five and six-tenths (5.6) percent of nitrogen and not 
more than ten (10) percent of moisture. 

Age of Flour. — The freshly ground flour is most highly esteemed by 
many consumers on account of palatability and freedom from all danger of 
mold and ferments. Older flours are likely to lose flavor, become moldy and 
infested with weavil and other insect pests. The last-named evils are avoided 
by the use of wheat containing no fungus, none of the eggs of the weavil, 
noK of other insects, and enclosing the freshly ground flour in packages not 
accessible to infection. Even then it is advisable to consume the flour as 
soon as convenient after the milling process. Many manufacturers and 
experts contend that flour is improved by keeping for a certain length of 
time, and this contention is based on the assumption that the flour assumes 
a lighter color and improves in flavor on keeping. There is of course a 
certain limit to improvements of this kind. 

Substitutes for Flour. — Wholesome ingredients are used in part 
instead of flour in bread making, and when that fact is clearly made known 
the admixture of these substances with flour is not considered an adulteration. 
Bread which is made of an admixture of Indian corn meal with flour or rye 
flour with flour or other cereal products is well liked by many people. Pota- 
toes are also used ver)^ often in bread making. Acorns, buckwheat, and 
other farinacious and oily substances are also employed. The admixture of 
inert substances with flour merely to increase the bulk and weight of the 
loaf, even if stated, cannot be regarded as other than an adulteration. 



VARIETIES OF BREAD. 249 

In times of famine such admixtures are sometimes made in order to increase 
the size and weight of the loaf. Such substances are known in times of 
famine as "hunger bread." Finely ground straw, bark, the hulls of nuts, 
etc., are often used for this purpose. These bodies practically have no nutri- 
tive value and serve no useful purpose e.xcept to deceive the eater respecting 
the quantity of bread he consumes. 



BREAD. 

The term "Bread" when used alone is understood in this country to apply 
to bread made from wheat tlour or some form of wheat. If made from 
other cereals a prefix is used to distinguish this fact, as Indian corn bread, 
rye bread, etc. The term bread includes also the materials which are used 
necessarily therewith in the ordinary process of baking. Thus, the term 
bread would apply to a loaf which contains not only the wheat flour as the 
base and chief part of its mass but also the yeast or other leavening agent 
employed, together with salt, lard, or butter used in its preparation. The 
presence of these bodies, used in the sense above described, is not regarded 
as an adulteration. The term "bread," however, is not to be used to include 
those other forms of nutriment made from wheat flour in which condimcntal 
substances, especially sugar, are used to such an extent as to give the domi- 
nant taste of the condiment or condiments employed. Thus, the ordinarv 
cake of all descriptions, tarts, puddings, and other edible substances made 
largely from wheat flour, but to which the condiment or condiments impart 
a distinct taste, are not included under the term bread. 

In the generic sense the term bread may be used in the largest signification 
to signify food in general. 

Varieties of Bread, — In general all forms of bread may be divided into 
two great classes, leavened and unleavened. By far, the greater quantity of 
bread consumed belongs to the former class. Unleavened bread is used 
chiefly for certain religious festivals, in the form of biscuits or in certain 
varieties of Indian corn bread such as hoe cake, Johnnie cake, etc. Of the 
leavened bread there are two distinct classes, namelv, bread which is bakerl 
and eaten cold and bread which is consumed hot from the oven. Breari 
intended to be consumed cold is generallv eaten within twenty-four or forty- 
eight hours from the time of making though some varieties may be kept for 
an indefinite period. The use of hot bread is not commended by hygienists 
though it is difficult to see why, when properly made, the consumption of a 
hot roll should be regarded as injurious. The apparent injury which may 
result therefrom is probably due to the larger quantitv eaten on account 
of greater palatability than is the case with cold bread. That variety of 
bread which is baked so as to present a maximum of crust and made of floui 



250 



CEREAL FOODS. 



which gives a tough consistency to the loaf is most highly regarded both for 
palatability and nutritive purposes. This form of bread is improperly 
called French or Vienna rolls in this country. 

Unleavened bread is ])articularly advisable for use in emergency rations 
for marching soldiers, in logging camps, etc. This bread is compact, com- 
paratively free of moisture and has a high nutritive value. The leavened 
bread may be divided into distinct classes in respect of the leavening agent 
employed. 

Class I is bread in which the leavening agent is yeast. Class 2 is 
bread in which the natural ferments residing in the flour or wheat 
are utilized for the leavening agent as in the making of that variety known 
as salt rising bread. Class 3 includes that form of bread in which the 
leavening is secured by chemical reagents mixed with the dough. Class 4 
includes that variety in which a leavening reagent such as carbon dioxid 
or air is mechanically incorporated with the dough during the kneading 
process. 

Unleavened bread is also divided into several technical forms. The first 
class includes the biscuit of commerce, sometimes incorrectly called crackers, 
and intended to be used soon after preparation. The second class includes 
biscuits which are intended for long storage and transportation. The third 
class includes wafers and other delicate forms of unleavened bread for special 
use. Class 4 is the unleavened loaves which are made most frequently 
from Indian corn meal and intended to be eaten while still hot. Class 5 
includes any miscellaneous unleavened loaves or cakes made in various ways 
and for different purposes. 

In nearly all forms of unleavened bread made from wheat flour the dough 
is thoroughly beaten, and mechanically mixed or kneaded, in order to make 
it lighter in color and more crisp and hard after baking. 

Yeast. — Bakers' yeast is one form of the ordinary yeast ferments or a mix- 
ture thereof producing alcoholic fermentation under proper conditions. All 
flour contains a certain quantity of sugar which is easily fermented. By 
the action of the yeast upon this sugar carbon dioxid and alcohol are formed. 
The particles of carbon dioxid become entangled in the gluten of the wheat 
Hour when it is mixed into a dough and thus make the mass spongy and 
light. When placed in the oven to be baked these minute particles of carbon 
dioxid expand still more and produce additional lightness and sponginess 
of the loaf. The yeast may be propagated from one mass of dough to another, 
may be used in a moist state or, as is very commonly the case, manufactured 
in large quantities, and sold either moist or more commonly in a partially 
dried and pressed cake. 

Spontaneous Ferments. — All cereals contain ferments of a character to 
produce alcoholic fermentation spontaneously under proper conditions. It 



CHEMICAL AERATING AGENTS. 25 1 

is possible even to ferment dough by seed from one loaf to another or by 
developing a spontaneous fermentation. This method is quite a common 
one in the rural districts, and all bread made in this way is known as salt rising 
bread. It may be made according to the following receipt: 

A quarter of a pint of fresh whole milk is slowly heated to near the boiling 
point, but not allowed to boil. This process will sterilize the milk and pre- 
vent the development of a too rapid lactic fermentation in the subsequent 
processes. The heated milk is added to a quantity of maize meal sufficient 
to make with the milk a stiff batter, and the whole is thoroughly mixed. The 
vessel containing the batter is wrapped with paper and then with a heavy 
flannel cloth, and kept in a warm place at a uniform temperature of about 
blood heat for several hours, until fermentation is fully established and the 
batter assumes a definite sour odor. At this point a teaspoonful of salt is 
stirred into a pint of blood-warm water and into this a sufficient quantity 
of high-grade wheat flour is stirred to make a moderately stiff batter. This 
is thoroughly mixed with the sour mass obtained by the previous fermentation 
and the mixture exposed for from three-fourths to one hour to a blood heat 
as before. If the fermentation has been well conducted the mass will now 
be in a sufficiently active state to secure a proper porosity of the loaf.* The 
salt rising thus prepared is mixed with a wheat flour dough made with warm 
water in sufficient quantities to make from four to six loaves, the whole mass 
well kneaded, molded into loaves and put aside at a temperature of blood 
heat until the fermentation has proceeded far enough to make the loaf light 
and spong}\ The loaf is then baked in the ordinary way. 

Chemical Aerating Agents. — In this country a very common method 
of aerating bread is practiced, based upon the use of certain chemical reagents 
which when mixed in the dough set free carbon dioxid. These reagents 
are known as baking or yeast powders and are especially prized by reason 
of the fact that it is possible with their aid to prepare in a few moments a 
light spongy loaf or roll which would require from lo to 24 hours to make 
by the ordinary fermenting with yeast. The principal objection to the use 
of baking powder lies in the fact that the residues arising from the chemical 
reaction are necessarily left in the loaf. While these residues may not have 
any specific or poisonous properties they increase the quantity of mineral 
matter in the bread, and this mineral matter is in the inorganic state and as 
such does not take any part in the process of nutrition. It can only be re- 
garded as a waste product, burdening, to that extent, the excretory organs 
of the body. 

Constituents of Baking Powder.— The essential constituents of baking 
powder are a carbonate of some kind and an acid reagent capable of de- 
composing this carbonate and setting the carbon dioxid free. The common 
carbonate of a baking powder is bicarbonate of soda. The classification 



252 CEREAL FOODS. 

of baking powders rests upon the acid elements which they contain. They 
may be classified as follows: (i) Cream of tartar baking powder, in which the 
acid constituent is cream of tartar which is known chemically as acid potas- 
sium tartrate. Other forms of tartaric acid may be used in baking powders 
of this class but they are not common. (2) Phosphate powders, in which 
the acid constituent is phosphoric acid usually in the form of the acid phos- 
phate of lime. (3) Alum pov/ders in which the acid constituent is alum or 
some form of aluminium sulfate, usually the basic sulfate of alumina. 

The acid and basic constituents of these powders may be kept in separate 
containers and mixed together at the time of making the dough. A more 
common form is to use them in such a way that until they mix with the dough 
they do not exert any notable effect upon each other. For instance, per- 
fectly dry bicarbonate of soda and perfectly dry acid potassium tartrate may 
be mixed together and kept for quite a while without any notable decom- 
position of the bicarbonate taking place. 

In order to render any such possible action minimvim in its effect it is cus- 
tomary to add to the mixture a small quantity of starch, milk sugar, or some 
other diluent. These materials tend to keep apart the particles of acid and 
base and render it possible to make a mixture of them which may be kept 
for a long while without any notable loss of leavening power. When a cream 
of tartar baking powder is mixed with dough the moisture of the dough grad- 
ually dissolves the two ingredients and in this state a chemical reaction occurs 
between them. The carbon dioxid is set free as a gas, commonly known 
as carbonic acid. The mineral substance which results is a tartrate of sodium 
and potassium that is a union of tartaric acid with potash and soda. This 
compound is commonly known under the term of Rochelle salts. If there 
be a sufficient quantity of water in the bread to allow the Rochelle salts to 
crystallize in the usual way a portion of the water becomes incorporated with 
the salt. Two teaspoonsful of a tartrate baking powder leave a residue of 
about II grams (165 grains) of crystallized Rochelle salts in the loaf. 

Phosphate Powders. — As has already been said, the acid constituent of 
phosphate powder is chiefly acid phosphate of lime. In this case the acid 
phosphate of lime decomposes the bicarbonate of soda with the production 
of carbon dioxid and leaves a residue consisting of a mixture of sodium and 
lime phosphate. If in two teaspoonsful of phosphate powder there are approx- 
imately 16 grams (250 grains) there is formed a crystallized residue, about 
an equal weight of phosphate of soda and lime, which is left in the loaf. 

Alum Powders. — Perhaps by far the largest part of baking powders used 
contain alum in some form as the acid constituent. Formerly the common 
substance known as alum or burnt alum was employed but in late years an 
aluminium basic salt known as basic sulfate of aluminium has largely 
succeeded the old form of alum. When the reaction takes place in the dough 



CHARACTER OF ALUM RESIDUES. 253 

between these two constituents of alum baking powder there is formed an 
equivalent quantity of sulfate of soda and hydroxid of alumina if the acid 
constituent be basic aluminium sulfate. 

The quantity of residue left in the loaf if two teaspoonsful of baking powder 
be used is about ii grams (165 grains). 

Harmfulness of Baking Powder Residues, — The question of the harm- 
fulness of tlie residues left b\' the various forms of baking powder is one which 
has been of much interest to the hygienist and physician. It is not claimed 
in any case that these residues are beneficial. The principal question which 
has been discussed is which of them is the least harmful. This is a question 
which it is not proper to enter into in this manual. It might, however, not 
be out of place to say that the use of chemical reagents for leavening bread 
is not as advisable as the use of the ordinary fermentation. It would be 
better, e\'idently, if all people used more yeast bread and less baking powder 
rolls. At the same time the utility and convenience of baking powder cannot 
be denied, and this is a factor which must be taken into consideration in the 
general discussion and final resolution of the question. 

Character of Alum Residues. — f^very one is agreed that the substance 
known as alum, namely, the sulfate of alumina in conjunction with another 
mineral or base, such as soda, potash, or ammonia, is not a desirable con- 
stituent of food products. In the manufacture of baking powders containing 
alum an effort is made to so balance the constituents that when the reaction 
is completed no undecomposed alum remains. If this condition is secured 
in every instance the materials which remain in the bread are not alum but 
the residues above mentioned, consisting of aluminium hydrate, and sulfates 
of soda, potash, or ammonia. 

The residue of chief importance is the hydroxid or hydrate of alumina, 
which is the form in which the alumina itself should appear when a complete 
reaction like that defined above takes place. When the hydroxid of alumina 
is dried and especially when ignited it is converted into an oxid of alumina 
which is highly insoluble in water and only slightly soluble in a very dilute 
acid solution. The claim is made by the manufacturer of alum powders 
that the aluminium residue which is formed is insoluble in the digestive juices 
and therefore cannot produce any effect usually ascribed to the soluble salts 
of aluminium. It is important that the conditions which obtain in the baking 
of bread should be such as to produce this highly desirable result. The 
temy)erature of the interior of the loaf during baking does not rise much above 
that of boiling water, although the exterior temperature, which is sufficient 
to produce the browning of the crust, is very much above that temperature. 
It is evident that as long as any considerable proportion of water remains 
in the loaf it will be difificult to raise the interior of the loaf to the tempera- 
ture just mentioned, and if this were done the caramelization would take place 
throughout the whole loaf. Unfortunately, from a scientific point of view 



254 CEREAL FOODS. 

the investigation of this subject has not been always undertaken under con- 
ditions which are wholly beyond criticism. Many of the investigations have 
been in the interest of rival baking powder companies, and it is very desirable 
that this matter should be undertaken in a wholly unbiased way and con- 
ducted in such a manner as to lead to results which all will accept. Chemical 
and physiological investigations, which have even as a remote object the 
promotion of the sale of one compound and the repression of the sale of 
another, lose at the outset much of that claim upon the public confidence 
which such investigations made from a purely scientific point of view should 
have. 

General Statement. — In respect of the use of chemical leavening agents 
in general it may be said that they introduce an extraneous product into the 
bread which is not likely to promote the health and which, therefore, on 
general principles should be excluded. On the other hand, large experience 
has shown that the consumption of bread made by these leavening agents 
does not produce any general effect upon the public health which is noticeable. 
This, it is understood, is not any valid argument in favor of the process. It 
must also be acknowledged that a fermentation of a bread with yeast also intro- 
duces extraneous matter into the food, viz., alcohol and congeneric products 
of fermentation, and hence this process may be open to a certain extent to 
the same objection as the one above. It is too early yet to formulate definite 
principles either of inclusion or exclusion of these products, and the purpose 
of this manual is secured when the general character and effects thereof are 
briefly outlined. 

Composition of Bread. — Because of the many different methods of bread 
making which are practised it is not possible to give in a chemical form an 
analysis which would do more than represent in general the character of the 
bread in common use. For instance, the quantity of water which is found 
in bread varies greatly and the nature of bread itself must be influenced by 
the character of the flour from which it is made. The flour depends upon the 
quality of the wheat used in its manufacture. Hence the same brand of bread 
prepared in the same way and baked in the same manner must necessarily 
vary in composition from season to season and even from day to day. It 
must be understood also that it is a very common custom in the United States 
to use milk in the mixing of dough, and thus a food product is introduced 
which of itself is not of constant character. Some bakers use whole milk, 
others skimmed, and others sour milk. 

A very good formula for mixing dough for bread making consists in using 
the following proportions of ingredients mentioned: 

Flour, 2,000 grams 

Whole milk, 500 " 

Water, 650 " 

Salt, 25 " 

Yeast cake 10 " 



COMPOSITION OF BREAD. 255 

When properly leavened and kneaded and baked these quantities of mate- 
rials will make a loaf of bread weighing 2750 grams. 

Average Composition oj Bread. — In the following tables are given the average 
composition of bread of different classes. Class i is composed of loaves of 
the so-called Vienna or French type; Class 2 consists of what is known as 
home made bread or bread baked at the home and not in the bakery; Class 
3 consists of bread made from graham flour; Class 4 consists of bread 
made largely of rye flour; Class 5 is a second collection of home made bread 
which may be ver}^ properly compared with Class 2; Class 6 consists of 
bread of miscellaneous origin bought on the open market. The data given 
represent the mean composition of numbers of samples (Bull. 13, Bureau of 
Chemistry) : 

Moisture. Protein. Ether Fiber. Ash. Starch and Salt. Calories. 

E.XTRACT. Sugar. 

Class i. Percl. Perct. Pcrcl. Percl. Percl. Percl. Perct. 

3S.71 8.09 1.06 .62 1. 19 5372 .57 . . 

In the dry substance, . . 13-23 1.73 .97 1.95 83.10 .93 4458 
Class 2. 

33.02 7.24 1.95 .24 1.05 56.75 .56 . . 

In the dry substance, . . lo.So 2.91 .36 1.55 S4.75 .84 4497 
Class 3. 

34.S0 8.15 2.03 1. 13 1.59 53.40 .69 . . 

In the dry substance, . . 12.51 3.13 1.74 2.29 82.06 1.07 4434 
Class 4. 

33.42 7.88 .66 .62 1. 84 56.21 1. 00 . . 

In the dry substance, . . 11.86 1.02 .95 2.79 84.36 1.50 4395 
Class 5. 

36.16 7.10 1. 14 .26 1.06 54.53 .58 . . 

In the dry substance, . . 11. 17 1.75 .41 1.68 85.41 .92 4395 
Class 6. 

34.41 6.93 1.48 .30 1. 00 56.18 .49 . . 

In the dry substance, . . 10.59 2.21 .46 1.53 85.66 .76 4401 

A Typical American High-grade Yeast Bread. — In conjunction with the 
actual analyses given above it is of interest to combine as many analytical 
data as can be conveniently secured for the purpose of determining what 
the average composition of a high-grade typical yeast bread is. This com- 
parison leads to the following composition: 

Moisture, 35-oo percent 

Protein, 8.00 " 

Ether extract, 75 " 

Starch and sugar, 54-45 " 

Fiber, 30 " 

Ash, 1.50 " 

Of the ash mentioned in the above analysis .50 percent may be ascri])ed to 
the natural mineral ingredients of flour and i percent to added salt. 

The chief variations from the typical composition of bread made from 
high-grade flour are found in the moisture and ether extract. The moisture 
may rise above 40 percent in breads made of flour rich in gluten or sink 
to 30 percent or under when flour of an inferior gluten content is employed. 
The quantity of ether extract depends chiefly upon the amount of milk which 
is used in the making of bread and the amount of fat employed either in the 



256 CEREAL FOODS. 

bread itself or in greasing the pan in which it is baked. There is great difiS- 
culty in extracting a fatty body which has been mixed with a glutinous material 
like flour. The analytical data, therefore, do not represent in the ether extract 
all the fat naturally present in the flour plus that added in the making of 
dough or in baking. 

The quantity of moisture in bread may also be determined largely by the 
time of baking and the temperature of the oven. A bread baked for a long 
while at a low temperature will be much drier than a bread baked quickly 
at a high temperature. The high temperature solidifies the exterior of the 
loaf so as to make it difficult for the interior moisture to escape. By quickly 
baking the bread the temperature of the interior does not reach so high a 
temperature as in an oven with a low temperature and a long-continued heat. 

Standard jor Moisture. — The quantity of moisture in bread of standard quality 
in the District of Columbia may not exceed 31 percent. 

The average temperature of the baking oven is about 240° C. (464° F.). 

Quantity of Sugar in Bread. — The quantity of sugar found in fermented 
bread is always less than that present in the flour, added in milk, or otherwise 
introduced in the preparation of the dough. The sugar disappears largely 
under the influence of the fermentation due to the yeast. 

Quantity of Ash, — The quantity of ash in bread is uniformly higher than 
the content of mineral matter in the flour. This is due to the addition of 
common salt which is uniformly employed in all bread, and in the case of 
bread made from baking powder the retention of the mineral residues in the 
loaf increases to that extent the content of ash. With the exception of the 
ash, the ether extract or fat, the sugar, and the dry material of bread corre- 
spond in quantity to the same materials in the flour from which it is made, 
except the loss due to the caramelization of the crust. 

Acidity of Bread. — The development of the lactic acid ferments is impor- 
tant in regard to hygienic conditions and to palatability. Flour contains 
practically no acid in a free state, and the acidity of bread is itself due to the 
changes which take place in its preparation under the influence of the ferments 
therein. Bread baked in the usual manner after the yeast ferments have ex- 
erted their activity shows the presence of acetic acid, lactic acid, and other 
acids and salts. The acidity of bread adds to its palatability and also, doubt- 
less, to its digestibility. Bread, containing, as it does, a large percentage of 
protein, is digested in an acid medium. The natural acidity of bread, 
therefore, must be regarded as beneficial. 

Comparative Nutritive Properties of Indian Corn Bread and "Wheat 
Bread. — There is a widespread opinion that the products of Indian corn 
are less digestible and less nutritious than those of wheat. This opinion 
amounts to a conviction in most European countries, where the products 
obtained by the milling of Indian corn are not regarded as fit for human 



COMPARATRT DIGESTIBILITY OF WHEAT AND CORN. 257 

food in an unmixed state. The above opinion, it appears, has no justifica- 
tion cither from the chemical composition of the two bodies or from recorded 
digestive and nutritive experiments. 

A studv of the analytical data of the whole grain shows that in so far as 
actual nutrition is concerned the maize is fully as nutritious as wheat. In 
respect of its content of fat Indian corn and its direct products easily take 
precedence of all the other cereals, with the exception of hulled oats. In 
round numbers Indian corn Hour or bread made therefrom contains twice 
as much fat or oil as wheat, three times as much as rye, twice as much as 
barlev, and nearly as much as hulled oats. In regard to digestible carbo- 
hydrates, that is digestible starch, sugar, dextrin, and fiber, Indian corn flour 
possesses a higher content than hulled oats and almost the same content as 
wheat. In regard to digestible protein Indian corn has nearly the same 
quantity as the other leading cereals, except oats. What it lacks, however, 
in its quantity of protein in so far as nutrition is concerned is more than made 
up in its excess of fat. 

Comparative Digestibility and Nutrition of Wheat and Indian Com 
from Experiments Made in South Dakota Station, Bulletin 38. — Pigs 
Avere fed with Indian corn and wheat, or rather the ground Indian corn and 
ground wheat, and it was found that pound for pound there was a greater 
gain in the case of Indian corn flour than wheat. For 100 pounds of flour 
fed the average gain with Indian corn was 21.83 pounds and where wheat 
flour was used 20.79 pounds. These experimental data show that in regard 
to nutritive properties Indian corn flour cannot be considered inferior to 
wheat flour. Indian corn bread is particularly well suited for persons engaged 
in hard manual labor. A ration which is composed largely of Indian corn 
products and oatmeal is found to be particularly valuable for those engaged 
in lumbering, harvesting sugar-cane, etc. 

Indian Corn Flour Pudding. — \'arious forms of pudding are prepared 
from Indian corn flour. Among the most important is that known in the 
New England States as hasty pudding and in the west and south as mush. 
A simple method of preparing Indian corn pudding, hasty pudding, or mush 
is to stir into water, very slowly, the Indian corn flour in such a way as to 
avoid the formation of lumps. The flour should be sifted into the water 
either cold or at boiling temperature and the mixture vigorously stirred mean- 
while. By this means a thin, uniform paste is secured which is allowed to 
cook slowly until quite thick in consistence and until all the starch granules 
are thoroughly disintegrated. The product is improved by allowing to stand 
for several hours at near the boiling point after the cooking is finished, pro- 
vided precautions are taken not to allow the mass to become too solid. This 
product is eaten hot with butter, milk, or cream, or is much prized when allowed 
to cool, cut into thin slices and fried. A very important dish for the children 
18 



358 CEREAL FOODS. 

of working people and farmers of the south and west is mush and milk, 
namely the product above mentioned eaten with skim milk. This mixture 
forms a palatable and wholesome diet. Various other forms of pudding^ 
are made into which Indian corn enters to a greater or less degree. 

Composition of Biscuits. — The composition of a biscuit or dry unleavened 
bread does not differ essentially from that of the ordinary bread except in the 
content of moisture. The biscuits are usually baked in thin cakes or loaves 
which become heated throughout and sometimes caramelize throughout a 
large part of their substance. This favors the expulsion of the greater part 
of the moisture which the dough originally contained. The average com- 
position of biscuits is shown in the following data: 

Moisture, 7.13 percent 

Protein, ' 9.43 " 

Ether extract, 8.67 " 

Fiber, 47 " 

Ash, 1.57 " 

Salt, 99 

Starch and sugar, 73-77 " 

In the dry substance: 

Protein, 1 10.18 percent 

Ether extract, 9.33 " 

Fiber,. .53 " 

Ash, 1.70 " 

Salt, 1.08 

Starch and sugar, 78-79 " 

Calories, 4,755 

The above data show that biscuits vary in composition from bread chiefly 
in their content of moisture and fat or oil. The moisture, as is noted, is very 
low, while the quantity of fat which the biscuit contains is from 8 to 10 times 
as great as that contained in flour from which they are rhade. The salt con- 
tent and the mineral ingredients of the biscuit are often higher than in bread 
or flour. Inasmuch as a large quantity of fat and salt are used commonly 
in the manufacture of biscuits the presence of these bodies cannot in any sense 
be regarded as an adulteration. In forty-eight samples examined only four 
were free of notable quantities of added fat. In one case over 16 percent 
of fat was found, and as it has been shown that all the fat which is added is 
not extracted by ether it is evident that in this case an amount of fat equal to 
20 percent of the weight of the flour may have been used. 

It appears, from a study of the composition of biscuits, that it is advisable 
to use them as a relish or delicacy for eating with cheese, etc., in ordinary 
daily life, while they become almost a necessity in some form or other in the 
preparation of emergency rations for marching armies, on shipboard, in logging 
camps, etc. It is not advisable to employ them in the daily diet to the exclu- 
sion of bread. Their nutrient contents have, in comparison with bread, 
a lower coefficient of digestibility, due largely to the added fat. 



AMOUNT OF SUGAR LOST IN FERMENTATION. 



259 



Amount of Sugar Lost in Fermentation. — The total quantity of sugar 
and other carbohydrates lost in fermentation amounts to about 2 percent 
of the weight of tlour used. Sometimes it is much greater and sometimes 
less than this. The nutritive value of the product is diminished in ])roportion 
to the extent of the loss ox sugar. The carbon dioxid produced during fer- 
mentation has no food value, and the alcohol is largely lost in the form of 
vapor during the process of baking. About half the loss is due to carbon 
dioxid and half to alcohol. The alcohol, although lost mostly during the 
baking, serves a useful ])urpose, — in the expansion of the vapor it aids the 
carbon dioxid in making the bread more ])orous. The hydrolysis which 
takes place in baking converts some of the starch to dextrinoid or saccharoid 




Fir.. 36.— COMPARATIVR APPF.ARANCR Oli" BREAnS OF DiFFRRRNT KINDS. 



conditions. It is evident that from 6 to 8 percent of total starch present in 
the flour is changed during the fermentation and baking into more or less 
soluble forms. 

Texture and Size of Loaves Made from Different Kinds of Flour. — 
The variations in l)read and size of loaves made from different kinds of flour 
when the conditions of fermentation and baking are the same depends upon 
the texture and quantity of the gluten material in the flour. The difference 
in the appearance and size of loaves is shown by a photograph of the cross- 
sections of three loaves of bread in Fig. 36. 

It is seen that the loaves made from graham flour and entire wheat fl,-ur to 
the left in the illustration, are somewhat coarser in structure and are smaller 
in size than the one made from the same quantity of standard patent flour, 
shown to the rii/ht. 



20o CEREAL FOODS. 



MACARONI. 



The preparation of wheat flour of a high glutenous character and molded 
into various forms, usually tubes, cylindroids, or fine shreds, is known in the 
trade under various names such as noodles, spaghetti, and macaroni. An 
examination of a number of these bodies shows them to have the following 
average composition : 

Moisture, 9.66 percent 

Protein, 12.02 " 

Ether extract, 42 " 

Crude fiber, 56 " 

Ash, ^ 78 

Starch and sugar, 77-i2 " 

In the dry substance: 

Protein, '^3-33 percent 

Ether extract, .47 " 

Crude fiber, ' .62 " 

Ash, 86 

Starch and sugar, 85-34 " 

Calories, 4,428 

These bodies, it is seen, do not have a cornposition very different from that 
of a first-class bread except in their content of moisture and protein. They 
are made from various kinds of wheat, especially hard wheat which forms 
a tenacious gluten product well suited to molding into the different forms 
•which these bodies have. Their nutritive value is practically the same as 
that of good wheat bread of the same moisture content. 

Domestic Macaroni. — The introduction of varieties of wheat with the 
properties suitable for making macaroni has been thoroughly exploited by 
the Department of Agriculture. The macaroni wheat grown as a subvariety. 
is known botanically as Triticum durum. The durum wheats are not 
regarded as of equal value to the ordinary wheats for general milling 
purposes and command a lower price. The French name is Ble dur 
and the German name is Hartweizen. The wheat of this subspecies grows 
rather tall, having broad, smooth leaves of a whitish green color and a very 
hard cuticle. The heads are comparatively slight in most varieties, com- 
pactly formed, and occasionally very short. All the durum wheat is bearded 
and the beards are exceptionally long. The kernels are hard and glassy, 
often partly translucent. They are generally yellowish white in color, oc- 
casionally inclined to red, and the grains are generally rather large. In other 
aspects this wheat resembles barley and for this reason in Germany it is often 
called Gerstenweizen. The general appearance of these wheats both in the 
field and in the individual heads is shown in the accompanying figures. 

Macaroni wheats are well adapted to semi-arid regions; in fact it may be 
said that they are the product of such an environment rather than adapted 



MACARONI. 



261 




Fig. 37. — A Field ok Durum \\InKAT.— {Courtesy 0/ Bureau 0/ Plant Industry.) 



262 



CEREAL FOODS. 




Fig 38 —Drought-resistant Macaroni Wheats (Heads and Grains). 
Kubanka; 2.' Nicaragua ; 3. Velvet Don ; 4, Black Don- sWM Goos^.-{Bulletin No.3,Bureau 
, i^uudiiK , , & ^y ^^^^^^ Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



MANUFACTURE OF MACARONI. 



263 



to it. For this reason they are wheats which are able to resist continued dry 
weather and high temperature. These wheats do not grow well in acid soils 
but flourish best in an alkaline soil of fine texture and well supplied with 
humus and the necessary plant foods. The largest quantity of macaroni 
wheat is grown in east and south Russia. These wheats have given very 
good results in the semi-arid regions of the United States. The appearance 
of the wheat as it grows in the field is shown in the accompanying plate. 

The domestic macaroni is now made in rhany factories in the United States 
and there is a continually increasing demand for the domestic article. The 
hardiest varieties of wheat are used in the manufacture of this article in the 
United States, especially the hard Kansas winter wheat. 

Composition of Domestic Macaroni. — In the table below is given the mean 
composition of twenty samples of macaroni of domestic origin, made from 
domestic wheat. In the second column is given the mean compositit)n of 
five samples of imported macaroni. 

Domestic Product. Foreign Product. 

Moisture, 10.27 10-32 

Fat or ether extract, .40 .35 

Crude fiber, .49 .53 

Protein, 11. 61 12.27 

Starch and sugar, 76.52 76.10 

Preparation oj Flour for Macaroni. — The term Semolina or Semola (Italian) 
or Semoule (French) is usually applied to the flour used in the manufacture 
of macaroni. In the United States the flour which is used is obtained by 
selecting the hardest wheat and preparing the flour in the usual manner. 
In France and Italy the preparation of semolina is accomplished in separate 
mills. The devices for grinding are essentially the same as those for pro- 
ducing the best grade flour, the main difference being that the wheat is 
moistened slightly before grinding and the flour is less fine than ordinary 
baking flour. 

Evidently very slight changes in the method of milling would enable the 
ordinary mill to produce a fine grade of macaroni flour either from the macaroni 
wheat or from any very hard glutinous wheat grown in the United States. 

Manufacture of Macaroni. — As practiced in the best districts of Italy, 
macaroni is manufactured according to the following method:* 

The durum wheat is ground into semola and sieved to remove the starchy 
part of the grains and leave the clear, light amber, or glutinous part. Three 
or four grades of quality are made, and these depend on the size of the sieve 
meshes. 

The semola is put into a special iron mixer, shaped like an old-fashioned 
artillery mortar, except that it is square instead of cylindrical, and furnished 
in the bottom with special screw-shaped fans with which to stir the paste 
*Fairchild, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 25. 



264 CEREAL FOODS. 

or dough. Boiling water is added to the semola and the dough is mixed 
for about seven minutes. The mass is then put on a flat, circular kneading 
board and kneaded by two sharp-edged parallel beams which rise and fall 
as the table turns and press into the dough as they descend. A few minutes 
of kneading are sufficient and the homogeneous dough is then put into the 
cylinder and the piston descends upon the mass, forcing it in strings slowly 
through the perforated plate at the bottom. Fifteen minutes are required 
to convert the gallons of dough into thousands of feet of yellow macaroni. 
The yellow color is produced by the use of saffron or of a coal tar dye of 
which a very small quantity is put into each batch of dough. This is a rep- 
rehensible practice. 

As soon as the strings of fresh paste which issue continually from the die 
are of the proper length they are cut and thrown over a reed pole and carried 
into the sunlight, if the weather is fair, or into sheltered terraces, protected 
by curtains from the rain, if the weather is unfavorable. On bright days 
the strings of macaroni are exposed to the sunlight only two hours. They 
must be dried out only slightly before being cellared for the night in dungeon- 
like underground vaults similar to the Bavarian beer cellars. 

For twelve hours or more the poles of macaroni are kept in these damp 
places, until the dough has become moist and pliable again and the strings 
have lost the brittleness that the exposure to the sunlight has given them. 
From the cellars the poles are carried to shaded storehouses open on all sides 
to the air but not lighted from above. Here, in great masses of millions of 
strings, they hang for several days, from eight to twenty being required, 
depending upon the dryness of the atmosphere. According to the statements 
of a manager of a factory this process of drying is necessary to give to the 
brittle paste a horn-like toughness and fit it to withstand the rough handling 
to which it will be subjected without breaking into small pieces. 

In all this simple process the one point at which bacteria might have a 
chance to play a role is in the first drying, cellaring, and subsequent slow 
drying in the shade. The theory that the water is responsible for the flavor 
must rest, it seems to the writer, on other than bacterial grounds, for from 
the appearance of the tank which supplied the hot water the inference is easy 
that the water is chalybeate, for the tank was incrusted with iron. 

ROLLS. 

The term rolls is applied to bread, usually leavened with yeast, whether it is 
eaten warm or cold. The term biscuit is generally but improperly used in this 
country for hot bread made with baking powder. The composition of rolls 
varies greatlv with their method of preparation. Those made with yeast have 
practically the same composition as ordinary fermented bread, while those 



CAKES. 265 

made with a baking powder or with exceptionally large additions of milk, 
butter, or lard vary in composition accordingly. In the making of hot bread 
with baking powder, lard or butter is commonly used to a very large extent 
as "shortening." These fatty bodies render the gluten less tenacious, and 
the roll is thus easily broken and is without toughness or elasticitv. Owing 
to this irregular use of shortening and of mineral matter, including salt, 
the composition of rolls of commerce is extremely variable. In eleven samples 
of rolls analyzed, for instance, the content of moisture varied from 7 to 34. 
Evidently the sample sold as a roll which contained only 7 percent of moisture 
was in point of fact a biscuit and not a roll. The percentage of ether extract 
in these samples varied from .43 to 7.55. The average composition of the 
eleven samples is as follows: 

Moisture, 27.08 [icrcent 

Protein, 7.48 " 

Ether extract, 3.41 " 

Crude fiber, 60 " 

Ash, 1 .3 1 " 

Salt, 69 

Starch and sugar, 59-82 " 

In the dry substance: 

Protein, 10.46 percent 

Ether extract, 4.74 

Crude fiber, .77 

Ash, 1. 81 

Salt, 8r 

Starch and sugar, 82 .99 

Calories, 4i538 



CAKES. 

Wheat flour is one of the principal constituents of that class of sweetened 
bread known generally as cake. The kind and character of cake vary so 
greatly that no general statement of any very great value can be made respect- 
ing the average composition. In addition to the sugar and flour which are 
used in the manufacture of cake various flavoring ingredients or essences 
are employed, and usually excessive quantities of butter or lard for shortening 
purposes. In addition to this, other forms of cake are cooked in oil after the 
dough is made, thus adding an additional quantity of fatty matter to the 
material. Eggs are also a common constituent of cakes and these introduce 
into their composition additional quantities of protein and fat. Baking 
powder is very generally used in this country instead of yeast for the leavening 
of the cake and thus an additional quantity of mineral matter is introduced 
into their composition. 

In the manufacture of sweetened cakes the flour is mixed with eggs ana 
sugar and butter or lard to the proper consistency with or without the use 



266 CEREAL FOODS. 

of milk or cream. The cakes are baked in all kinds of sizes and shapes 
and may be eaten plain or in layers separated by a jelly, marmalade, or some 
other preserve. The exterior of the cake is often frosted with a mixture 
consisting of the white of egg beaten up with white sugar. The methods 
of mixing the ingredients of these cakes as well as the method of frosting 
are so various that it would not be possible to undertake any minute descrip- 
tion of them. 

For flavoring various materials are employed, either the real article or the 
imitation thereof, such as artificial strawberry, vanilla, etc. ' The cake or 
sweet cake is a very common dainty which is served at dessert. The ordinary 
cane sugar of commerce is the common sweetening matter usually employed 
in the refined state although sometimes yellow sugar is used. Honey is not 
so commonly used as a sweetening agent in this country as it is in European 
countries. 

In the manufacture of one of the common varieties known as ginger cake 
sugar-cane sirup or molasses is a common ingredient. 

An examination of a large number of samples of cake shows the following 
average composition: 

Moisture, 11-65 percent 

Protein, 6.29 " 

Ether extract, 9-8i " 

Crude fiber, 0.50 " 

Ash, 1-17 

Salt, 0.39 

Sugar, 24.57 

Starch, 46.01 

In the dry substance: 

Protein, 7-29 percent 

Ether extract, ii-4i 

Crude fiber, 0.57 

Ash, 1-30 

Salt, 0.44 

Sugar, 27.84 

Starch, 5i-59 

Calories, 4,805 

A study of the individual data shows extremely wide variations from the 
mean. The ether extract in the moisture samples in some cases amounted to 
over 19 percent and in the dry substance to over 24 percent. The moisture 
in one case was over 64 percent while in the dry cake of biscuit character 
it sinks below 5 percent and in one case below 4 percent. The average 
data, therefore, are to be considered only as a representative of this class of 
bodies and not as a type of any particular variety. 

Adulterations. — It is difficult to speak of adulterations of a substance of 
the composition of cake. Any wholesome flavoring or sweetening ingredient 
or other wholesome ingredient may be used in the manufacture of a cake 



BREAKFAST FOODS. 267 

of this kind without being an adulterant. From this class of bodies, however, 
there are e.xcluded artificial colors and artificial flavoring essences bearing the 
name of genuine. A yellow cake which does not owe its color to the eggs 
or other normal ingredients employed must be regarded as an adulterated 
article, especially if the dye used in producing the yellow is one of the coal tar 
dyes, whether one of the anilins or a nitrated product. The use of imitation 
fruit flavors such as the so-called strawberry, blackberry, raspberry, vanilla, 
etc., is also to be regarded as an adulteration. The adulteration of cakes may 
be regarded as confined particularly to these two classes of articles, assuming 
that all the other ingredients are wholesome and without injurious effects upon 
the digestion. The eggs used in cake making should be fresh and palatable. 
Too often stale storage eggs- aijd eggs broken or preserved with borax 
or formaldehyde and unfit for consumption have been used by the bakers of 
cakes. 

Mineral coloring matters have sometimes been found in cakes and these 
are more objectionable by far than the artificial colors above mentioned. 
Where molasses from sugar-cane factories is used in the manufacture of cake 
a considerable trace of chlorid of tin or of zinc salts may be found therein, 
derived from the wash used in the centrifugal when drying sugar crystals 
or from the process of bleaching the molasses. This must be regarded as a 
very serious adulteration and molasses of this kind should never be used in 
the manufacture of cake nor for edible purposes upon the table. Sulfurous 
acid may also be absorbed during the process of bleaching the sugar-cane juices. 

It is needless to add that cake with its complex character should be eaten 
as a relish rather than a diet. There is no hygienic or dietetic objection to 
the mixture of sugar with the flour in the making of or-dinary sweetened bread. 
Such bread must be regarded as highly nutritious and as differing from ordi- 
nary bread only in a disturbance of the natural food content of the loaf caused 
by the addition of a carbohydrate to the bread. Many of the cakes which 
are sold contain so small a quantity of sugar that they ought not to be classed 
with the sweet cake. Out of the whole number of samples used in the making 
up of the above average only four contained so little sugar as to be ineligible 
to bear the name of sweet cake or sweetened bread. 

Breakfast Foods. — A very large variety of cereal preparations are on the 
market under the general name of breakfast foods. These preparations are 
made directly from the cereals more or less completely ground by subjecting 
them to certain manipulations of a fermentative or culinary character by 
means of which the preparations are made ready for immediate consumption 
or at least with only a moderate degree of additional cooking. The changes 
which take place in the preparation of cereals for breakfast foods are of 
two general characters, namely, those produced by fermentative action 
with malt, yeast, or other ferments, and, second, changes produced by heating, 



268 CEREAL FOODS. 

either in the moist or dry state. Often both sets of changes are produced 
in the same product. The general difference, therefore, between a so-called 
breakfast food and the raw material from which it is made is found in the 
conversion of more or less starch into sugar and the change in the composi- 
tion of the material produced by moist heat or dry heat. In the latter case 
the temperature may be raised so as to cause considerable caramelization. 

Breakfast foods may also contain added condimental substances, such as 
salt, sugar, etc., sometimes used in their preparation. Nearly all the cereals 
or mixtures of cereals are represented in these prepared foods. Oats probably 
occupy the first rank and the preparations of oatmeal have to a large extent 
in the United States taken the place of home-prepared oatmeal for the break- 
fast table. Wheat, barley, and Indian corn are not far behind oats in their 
contributions to the numerous varieties of breakfast foods. 

The particular methods of preparation are usually trade secrets and at any 
rate the description of the extensive technical processes would be improper 
in this manual. The secrets, however, are merely methods of manipulation, 
since it is certain that the changes of a chemical nature which take place are 
of the general character or class described above. 

Breakfast foods are usually sold under trade-mark names which may or may 
not give an indication of their origin or character. Sometimes, in fact, the 
trade name gives a false indication and the use of such trade names must 
be considered as entirely reprehensible. Whenever a name used is descrip- 
tive it should be used in a practical sense and not for the purpose of mis- 
leading or deceiving. Breakfast foods may represent practically the whole 
grain or the grain with a removal of a proportion of the outer covering or they 
may represent the refined flour from which all or a considerable proportion 
of the germ and some of the rich nitrogenous ingredients have been removed. 

The attempt to give a list of the names which have been applied to break- 
fast foods would consume many pages and be of little value. 

Composition of Breakfast Foods. — In so far as possible the breakfast 
foods noted in the following tables have been arranged in accordance with 
the raw material from which they have been produced and the data given 
represent the average composition of breakfast foods of the classes mentioned. 
Individual variations from the average are often very great. 

Class I. — Breakfast foods made from Indian corn products. 
Class II. — Breakfast foods made from wheat products. 
Class III. — Breakfast foods made from oat products. 
Class IV. — Breakfast foods made from starch and tapioca. 
Class V. — Breakfast foods made from noodles, spaghetti, and macaroni. 
Class VI. — Breakfast foods made from barley. 

Class VII. — Breakfast foods of miscellaneous origin, that is consisting of 
those compounds of raw material not specified. 



BREAKFAST FOODS. 209 

Composition of Breakfast Foods.* 

Moisture. Proteids. Ether Fiber. Ash. Starch and Calories. 

Extract. Sugar. Per Gram. 
Class I, Indian Com Products : 

Pent. Pi-rct. Peicl. Peicl. Perct. Perct. 

In the original substance, . 12.33 7.92 0.58 0.67 0.66 78-51 • • ■ 

In tlie dry substance, 9.02 0.66 0.76 0.75 98.57 4385 

Class II, Ulirat Products: 

In the original substance, . lO.oS 12.01 1.80 1.4S 1.55 75-62 

In the dry substance. 13-36 2.01 1.65 16.73 84. oS 4462 

Class III, Oat Products: 

In the original substance, . 7.66 15-32 7.46 1.20 1.79 67.61 . . . 

In the dry substance, 16.60 8.08 1.38 1.94 73-20 4875 

Class IV, Starch and Tapioca Products : 

In the original substance, . 11.29 -39 -°3 -13 -14 88. 15 . . . 

In the dry substance, -43 .04 .15 .16 99-37 4193 

Class V, Noodles, Spaghetti and Macaroni : 

In the original substance, . 9.66 12.02 .42 .56 .78 '77.12 . . . 

In the dry substance, 13.33 -47 -62 .86 85-34 4428 

Class VI, Barley Products: 

In the original substance, . 10.92 7.50 .89 .67 .86 80.35 

In the dry substance, 8. 42 1.00 .75 .97 90.19 4344 

Class VII, Miscellaneous Products : 

In the original substance, . 6.41 12.81 1.05 .99 1.06 78.68 . . . 

In the dry substance 13-6S 1.12 1.04 1.13 84.07 4449 

Remarks on Table of Analyses. — 

Class /, Indian Corn Products. — The analytical data show that in the 
breakfast foods made from Indian corn products the germ has been quite 
uniformly removed. The cjuantily of fiber also shows that the maize tlour 
produced has been very carefully bolted. The ash is almost normal, show- 
ing only a small addition, probably of salt. The mean quantity of protein 
is that which would be predicted of an Indian corn product ground by the 
most approved milling process in order to make as white a flour as possible. 
These methods of preparing the flour, although so common, are not to be 
preferred either by reason of palatability or nutritive properties of the prod- 
ucts. The old-fashioned milling process makes a more palatable and more 
nutritious diet and affords a higher degree of heat and energv. 

The analysis of the Indian corn products show that they are very much 
lower in protein than would be expected from an analysis of the whole kernels. 
The low content of fat in the products is doubtless due to the complete deger- 
mination of the grain during the milling and to the further fact that the baking 
and other preparation of the material tend to occlude the fat particles, making 
their e.xtraction cjuite difiicult. 

Class II, Wheat Products. — The study of wheat products used as break- 
fast foods shows that the wheat germ is not removed to any very great extent 
during the preparation of the raw material. In fact the quantity of ether 
extract appears somewhat greater than would be expected in pure wheat 
*U. S. Dept. .A-gr., Bureau of Chemistry, Bull. 13, Part ix, p. 1345- 



270 CEREAL FOODS. 

products, and this leads to the supposition that oatmeal or Indian corn must 
be mixed with the food product in small quantities, since the ether extract 
in the case of wheat products is more than three times as great as in the case 
of Indian corn products of a similar character. This is an indication either 
of the use of mechanical methods as stated above or else of the admixture 
of other bodies without mention. There does not appear to have been any 
notable quantity of mineral substance, common salt or otherwise, added 
during the process of preparation. The quantity of protein in the product 
is that which would be predicted from the composition of wheat flour from 
which the samples are supposed to be made. 

Class III, Oat Products. — The oat products have evidently been made 
without any extensive degermination, as is shown by the high content of fat 
cr oil. The average composition of oat products shows that genuine oat- 
meal is used in their preparation and the probability is that little adulteration 
is practiced. The high content of oil and protein produces a corresponding 
depression in the quantity of carbohydrates. The high nutritive value of 
the product, both in respect of fat and of proteins, is fully illustrated by the 
analytical data obtained. The calories, as will be noticed, are very much 
higher than in the corresponding product from Indian corn, wheat, or in fact 
of any other of the breakfast foods. 

Class IV, Products made of starch and tapioca show, in the analytical data, 
that very high-grade starch materials are employed in the preparation of 
these bodies. The protein, ether extract, fiber, and ash almost disappear. 
As shown in the data for the dry substance, more than 99 percent of the 
whole material consists of carbohydrates, chiefly starch. The calories are 
correspondingly diminished since starch and sugar have the least heat value 
of any class of food products, except those of a mineral character. Foods 
of this kind are highly unbalanced, that is, contain a large excess of starch 
and sugar, and are often very prejudicial to the health of persons whose ability 
to digest starch and sugar has been lessened by disease. 

Class V, Noodles, spaghetti, and macaroni are often used as breakfast foods, 
though not by any means so universally as many others in this category. The 
analytical data show that these bodies correspond very well to the material, 
that is to the flour, rich in gluten, from which they are supposed to be made. 
The protein content is high, — the ether extract, fiber, and ash low, and the 
calories correspond to the chemical composition of the material. 

Class VI, Barley Products. — Barley products are not very commonly used 
as breakfast foods, but the malt used in the preparation of other breakfast 
foods is usually made of barley, since the barley malt has the highest diastatic 
value of any of the cereals. 

Class VII, Miscellaneous breakfast foods are so called because the character 
of the materials of which thev are made is not known or no statement is made 



BREAKFAST FOODS. 271 

by the manufacturer or dealer concerning them. The analytical data, of 
course, do not lead to any decision regarding the nature of the raw material 
employed. The percentage of protein, however, taken in conjunction with 
the rather low ether extract, indicates that they are probably made chiefly 
from wheat products. 

Much may be said in favor of the use of prepared breakfast foods, for, in 
so far as I know, they are usually palatable, wholesome, and nutritious. There 
are many points which may be urged against their general use, chief of which 
is in regard to their cost. There is no cereal now in general use for edible 
purposes which is worth as much as two cents per pound in the markets of 
this country, yet breakfast foods, which are only prepared cereals, are often 
sold for 10 or 15 cents per pound. This is a high price in comparison with 
the cost of the raw material, but it must not be forgotten that the cost of 
manufacture is to be considered. In the second place the cereal foods are 
undoubtedly best at the moment they are prepared. Unless carefully packed, 
they may become infected with insects of various kinds, which certainly add 
nothing to their value and detract very much from their desirability. In 
moist climates they become infested with mould and even with bacterial 
growths. Inasmuch as necessarily a large proportion of the prepared cereals 
remain for an indefinite time unsold, the consumer is liable at any time to 
come into possession of one of these deteriorated packages. In the third 
place there is no reason to believe that a prepared breakfast food is any more 
digestible, nutritious, or favorable to the health of the healthy individual than 
the broken cereal itself properly cooked. Further than this it may be stated 
that there is no preparation of cereals better than those which are freshly 
made from the freshly broken or ground grain. If, therefore, one has the 
time to properly prepare the fresh grains of the cereals they will be more 
palatable and more nutritious and equally as digestible as any of the prepared 
articles. On the other hand, there are cases of diseased or disordered digestion 
in which the prepared cereals will be more digestible, but this is certainly not 
the case in a state of health. There is reason to believe, therefore, that the 
demand for prepared cereals will continue, but the old-fashioned method of 
preparation of the cereal from the grain will still have its advocates. 

I think it may be said with certainty that the proper home preparation of a 
cereal as a breakfast food will not cost any more than the original cereal itself, 
and hence the price of this food ought not to be much more than 4 cents per 
pound without counting the added water in its preparation. 

I believe, therefore, that our people of limited means can be safely advised 
on the score of economy, palatability, and nutrition to prepare their own 
cereals for ordinary breakfast purposes. 

Economy in Nutrition. — In the present era of high cost of li\ang the 
question of economy in the food supply is one which is receiving general at- 



2 72 CEREAL FOODS. 

tention. There is no economy, however, in debasing the quality of food or 
diminishing its quantity below the amount required to restore wasted tissue, 
provide for growth and furnish the margin of safety which every well regulated 
organism provides. If the food supply be debased b}' any sort of manipula- 
tion whereby its nutritive properties are impaired, the damage done the body 
is more costly than the mone\- saved in the purchase of the food. If the supply 
of food is diminished below the amount specified above, the organism has 'no 
reserve power, and easily falls a prey to infection and disease, the loss in effi- 
ciency and the cost of medication far outweighing any diminution in the cost 
of purchasing the foods. Nevertheless there are many matters concerning 
the character of the foods already described which are worth considering 
in this connection. Pound for pound the cereals are the cheapest complete 
food on the market. Wheat at a dollar a bushel costs 1.33 cents a pound. 
Eighty percent of wheat is fit for human food, and, in fact, the whole wheat 
properly crushed is believed by many experts to be the best complete food with 
the possible exception of milk. Wheat contains onl\- 1 2 percent of water while 
milk contains 87 percent. Milk with 13 percent of solids costs 5 cents a pound, 
and wheat which contains 88 percent of solids costs 1.33 cents a pound. Ten 
cents expended for milk buys 0.27 pound of nourishment while ten cents ex- 
pended for wheat buys 8.8 pounds. 

A pound of average meat costs 18 cents and is not much over 45 percent 
food. It contains nearly half its weight of water and also much bone and 
cartilage. Ten cents spent for meat buys 0.56 pound, of which less than 
half is food, or, in other words, less than a quarter of a pound of food. More- 
over, this meat is not a complete food, lacking the carbohydrate element. 
Milk at ten cents a quart and meat at 18 cents a pound afford the same amount 
of food, but the milk ration is a complete food and the meat ration is not. 

In this computation the cost of milling the wheat and baking the bread and 
meat has not been included. In the exercise of true economy the wheat should 
be taken to the mill and the entire yield of the mill less the toll, viz., | of the 
whole, be returned to the consumer. Where economy is to be considered 
the preparation and baking of the product should be done at home. In 
such an economical household, the food will be chiefly cereals in the form of 
bread or other appetizing preparations, with milk only for the children, and 
meat, vegetables and fruits in moderation. Many a laboring man would find 
the burden of life greatly lessened by heeding these facts. 

The burden of life is heavy enough for the laborer who earns scarcely three 
hundred dollars a year, and he should be taught how he can best feed his 
family on this sum and save enough for rent, clothing, and schools. A diet of 
plain, unprepared cereals will do more for the poor than politics, grammar 
or geography. 



PART VI. 

VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



SUCCULENT VEGETABLES. 

The term vegetable as applied to food in the broadest sense of the word 
means that class which distinguishes it from animal food. In a narrower 
sense, however, the term vegetable is used to denote a certain form of food 
which is of a succulent or juicy nature. While cereals and fruits are vegetables 
in the broadest sense of the word they are not in the narrow and common 
meaning. The term "vegetable" in this section therefore refers to those 
substances commonly known as vegetables upon the market and which are 
characterized by their high water content. On account of this abundance of 
liquid or juice the term succulent is applied to them. The common vegetables 
which are included in this class consist of lettuce, spinach, potatoes, cauliflower, 
beets, radishes, turnips, cabbage, green Indian corn, peas, beans, tomatoes, 
yams, etc. These vegetables contain in a fresh state from 70 to 95 percent of 
water. Many of them can be kept for a length of time without deterioration, 
especially the potato and beet, and for a short time cabbage, radishes, etc., 
if kept cool and moist. Other kinds of vegetables are not easilv preserved for 
any length of time except in cold storage, such as lettuce, peas, beans, tomatoes, 
etc. If the potato and other starchy tubers are kept out of account these 
vegetables do not have a very high nutritive value, as will be seen by the 
analyses which follow. They have, however, an important part in the ration 
because of their palatability and the effect which they have upon the general 
activity of the alimentary canal. For instance, there is very little nourishment 
obtained in eating a turnip which perhaps is 95 percent water, — yet its palata- 
bility, its condimental character, and its general salutary effect uj)on digestion 
is such as to make it worth while to pay even a high price in proportion to its 
nutriment. For this reason, as well as for their nutritive value, the use of suc- 
culent vegetables is to be very highly commended. 

In general, as has been said, these vegetables are eaten in a fresh state or 

after being kept for a considerable time in cold storage or otherwise. The 

potato, for instance, can be kept by properly covering it in the earth or in 

bins through the winter. Cabbages are also kept in the same way and many 

19 273 



2 74 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

Other vegetables without apparent deterioration. These vegetables are often 
desiccated, and in this way can be kept for a much longer period. Unfor- 
tunately no method of desiccation has been developed which preserves entirely 
the palatability of the vegetable, although its nutrient properties, which are 
perhaps the least important of its properties in many respects, are preserved 
to a certain extent by desiccation. 

We may, however, leave out of consideration the desiccation of fresh vege- 
tables. Certain of the vegetables above mentioned naturally become desic- 
cated on maturity as in the case of peas and beans, but then they are removed 
from the category of succulent vegetables. Green Indian corn is also often 
dried, but in this process its palatability is to a certain extent impaired even 
when it is prepared for cooking in such a way as to restore practically all 
of the water which has been lost. Succulent vegetables are eaten either in a 
raw state or after cooking. For instance radishes and vegetables of this 
class are rarely cooked. On the other hand, potatoes, peas, and beans are 
always cooked and practically never eaten raw. Green Indian corn is also 
universally cooked before eating. There are other vegetables which are 
sometimes eaten raw and sometimes cooked, as, for instance, the turnip, 
while on the other hand the beet, w^iich is very sweet and naturally would be 
considered a suitable food for eating in a raw state, is always cooked before 
it is consumed. 

Artichoke (Cynara scolytnus). — This vegetable, while not very gener- 
ally grown in the United States, is cultivated to a very extensive degree in 
Europe. The flower, heads and the fleshy base on which they grow are the 
edible portions. 

The Jerusalem artichoke {TIeUanthiis tubcrosns L.) is a plant of the 
aster family which has edible tubers that form a valuable carbohydrate 
food. The carbohydrates which are present in this artichoke do not con- 
tain very much starch. In this respect they differ from the potato and the 
yam. When the starch of the potato and yam is converted by fermentation or 
otherwise into sugar it forms chiefly dextrose or maltose. On the other hand, 
when the carbohydrates of the artichoke are converted into sugar they form 
chiefly levulose. The principal part of the carbohydrate is known as inulin 
or levulan. The artichoke can be easily kept over a long period of time, and 
may remain without much detriment in the ground, where the winters are not 
severe, from autumn until spring. After harvesting it may be kept for some 
time without any very great loss in its food value. 

In the following table are given the data showing the composition of the 
Jerusalem artichoke, harvested in the autumn: 



THE BEAX. 275 

Fall: 

Water, 79-70 percent 

Inulin or levulin, 16:93 " 

Protein, i .48 " 

Ether extract, , . . .14 " 

Ash, 1.08 " 

(Behrcnd, J. fiir Landwirtshaft, vol. 52, p. 134, 1904.) 

The above data show that the artichoke, like the potato, is a fot)d product 
poor in protein and in fat and rich in carbohydrate material. In so far as 
known the carbohydrates of artichokes are equally as digestible and nutri- 
tious as those of other tubers. 

Asparagus. — Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) — French, asperge; Ger- 
man, spargel; Italian, sparagio; Spanish, esparrago— is a highly prized 
vegetable and is a native of- Europe. The edible asparagus is the young, 
fresh, undeveloped shoots taken at an early period of growth. They are 
highly valued when stewed or for use as a salad. There is a number of varie- 
ties of asparagus, among which may be mentioned the Giant Dutch asparagus, 
the common green asparagus, white German asparagus, etc. These are 
different in kind only, since they all belong to the same botanical species 
and the variations are produced chiefly by different methods of cultivation. 

Composition. — 

Water, 93-96 percent 

Ash, 67 " 

Protein, i .83 " 

Fiber, 74 " 

Sugar, starch, etc., 2.55 " 

Fat, 25 " 

Asparagus is composed chiefly of water, which amounts, in round num- 
bers, to 94 percent of its entire weight. Its edible portion is rich in pro- 
tein as compared with the beet and many other vegetables. It is some- 
what richer also in fat than the beet or the turnip. Its food value, as will be 
seen, is largely of a condimental character. 

The Bean. — The bean belongs to the family FabaceK. It is a native 
of America and has been cultivated from the earliest times. There are many 
different varieties of the bean which are cultivated in this country. They 
grow over the whole range of the United States. There are early and late 
maturing varieties. Beans are used for food both in the fresh state, while 
the pods are tender and can be eaten with the immature beans, and also in 
the dry state, in which condition they are a staple article of food. There 
are many different varieties of beans which, while not always botanically 
identical, are sufficiently so to warrant the use of the common name. Two 
general classes, however, may be distinguished, namely, those that grow in 
small clusters or bunches and tho.se that grow upon vines or tendrils which 
have to be supported. In regard to the kinds of culture to which beans are 



276 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

subjected there may be mentioned field beans, which are cultivated over a 
large area, and garden beans, which are cultivated in small gardens for the 
green markets. 

Kidney Bean. — The kidney bean, or French bean, is a special botanical 
variety (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). It is what is known in French as haricot; 
in German as Bohne; Dutch, Boon; Italian, faginolo; Spanish, habichuela. 
This variety of bean is commonly called a French bean and is a native of 
South America. It does not seem to have been known before the discovery 
of the American continent and hence is not thought to have grown wild 
in any other part of the world. The kidney bean is not very well suited to 
very high northern latitudes, since it is particularly sensitive to the cold, even 
.if the temperature is not low enough to produce frost. The kidney bean 
is cultivated over large areas and is also a garden crop. There are early and 
late varieties, so that the season for the kidney bean is a long one. The pods 
of this bean are distinguished by being long and slender, and it is particularly 
valuable for edible purposes while green and is also prized for canning. This 
is true, especially, of that variety which has a tender pod. 

There is another variety of bean in which the pod is tough, and this, 
of course, is not so well suited for eating green, although when very young, 
even the tough-podded bean can be used. There are a great many different 
varieties of kidney beans known, one of which is called the "dwarf kidney 
bean" on account of its growing only on low bushes and needing no support 
for the vines. In this variety the pods hang in thick clusters, the lower ends 
often touching the ground. 

Butter Beans. — There is another large class of beans known as butter 
beans. This variety is also known as Geneva, or plainpalais, or wax bean. 

Lima Beans. — The Lima bean is also a different botanical species known 
as Phaseolus Innatus L. It is nearly related to the kidney bean, being also 
a native of South America. The vine is a very long one, often reaching more 
than 10 feet if a proper support be offered it. The common Lima bean is 
one which matures rather late in the season, but it is most highly valued for 
its product, which is eaten shelled. There are smaller varieties of this bean 
known as the dwarf Lima or small Lima. 

The total number of varieties of beans which are known and cultivated 
is, perhaps, more than 100, but they belong in general to the large classes 
specified. 

Average Composition oj Green, String, and Lima Beans. — 
Lima beans : 

Water, 68.46 percent 

Ash, 1.69 

Protein, 7.15 

Crude fiber, 1.71 

Carbohydrates, . . . . _. 20.30 

Fat 69 



BEETS. 277 

String beans: 

Water, 87.23 percent 

Ash, .76 " 

Protein, 2.20 " 

Crude fiber, 1.92 " 

Carbohydrates, 7.52 " 

Fat,...; 37 " 

The above data are for green Lima beans with the pod removed and for 
string beans including the pod. The latter, it is seen, are composed largely 
of water, containing less than 13 percent of dry matter. Of the dry matter 
almost 20 percent is protein. The soluble carbohydrates, including the 
starch and sugar, are the most important of the ingredients of the dry 
substance in so far as actual weight is concerned. In the Lima bean the 
protein is more than three times as great as in the string bean, and the starch 
and sugar almost three times as much. As a nutrient, therefore, the Lima 
beans are far more valuable than the string beans. These data may be 
taken as representative of all varieties of green beans, hulled and unhulled, 
the Lima beans being types of hulled beans and the string variety being 
the type of beans including the pod. 

Composition of the Dry Bean. — 

Water, i5-86 percent. 

Ash,.^ 3.53 

Protein, 20.57 

Fiber, 3.86 

Sugar, starch, etc., 55-49 

Fat, 6q 

The analyses show that the dry bean is much richer in T)rotein than the 
cereals. 

Beets. — All the varieties of edible beets belong to the common species 
Beta vulgaris L. French, betterave; German, Salat-Rube; Dutch, Bet- 
wortel; Italian, barbabietola; Spanish, remolacha. 

The most important of these beets, economically, is the variety which has 
been cultivated for the purpose of producing sugar. By long years of selection 
and improvement the sugar content of the natural beet, which is not more 
than from four to six percent, has been brought up to an average of about 
14 percent, often reaching much larger quantities. The sugar beet itself, in 
its earlier stages, makes an excellent vegetable for the table, being particularly 
sweet and palatable. Its tannin content, however, is very high, and before 
cooking, especially, it has quite a bitter taste, at times. This disappears 
in the young beets when they are cooked. The sugar beet has a perfectly 
white flesh, inasmuch as the attempt was made in the early period of cultiva- 
tion to develop a beet without color in order to produce a white sugar with 
as little trouble as possible. On the other hand the garden beet is usually 
highly colored, the red beet being especially prized. The number of varieties 
of beets in cultivation is very great. Among the most important may be 



278 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

mentioned the long blood-red beet, which is the common garden beet, the 
rough-skinned red beet, the pear-shaped beet, the turnip-shaped beet, all of 
which are of the red color. There is also cultivated for eating purposes a 
beet with yellow flesh, though it is not by any means so common as the red 
garden beet. 

Composition 0} the Beet. — The following data represents the average com- 
position of the red beet used as a vegetable: 

Water, 88.47 percent 

Ash, 1 .04 

Protein, i-53 

Fiber, 88 

Sugar, starch, etc., 7.94 

Fat, 14 

The above data show that the average garden beet has a little less than 12 
percent of solid matter and a little more than 88 percent of water. It is 
rather poor in protein, though it is not a vegetable which can be classed as 
being excessively deficient in nitrogenous constituents. Its chief food value, 
however, is in the sugar which it contains, which is more than 7 percent. It 
is quite deficient in fat. 

Brussels Sprouts. — Brussels sprouts is a variety of cabbage which is 
grown over large areas in different countries and has a deservedly high repu- 
tation on the table. The French name is chou de Bruxelles; German, 
BriJsseler Sprossen-Kohl ; Italian, cavolo a germoglio; Spanish, bretones 
de Bruselas. The composition of Brussels sprouts is practically the same as 
that of cabbage. 

Cabbage. — The botanical name of the cabbage is Brassica oleracea L. 
and it belongs to the family Brassicacea?. It is a plant which is indigenous 
to both Europe and Asia, and still grows wild in some parts of the European 
continent. It is eaten both raw, in the form of salad, slaw, etc., and cooked 
in various methods. It is also subjected to a fermentation, producing the 
highly prized dish known as sauer-kraut. Its French name is chou cabus; 
German, Kopfkohl; Italian, cavolo cappuccio; Spanish, col repollo. 

The cabbage is a plant which, as it approaches maturity, has its leaves folded 
upon each other in a solid mass, producing the head. These leaves naturally 
become bleached and are extremely crisp and tender. The external, free 
leaves are not prized as a food. The varieties of the cabbage are almost 
legion and are produced by different methods of cultivation. 

Composition. — 

Water, 90-52 percent 

Ash, 1.40 " 

Protein, 2.39 " 

Fiber, 1.47 " 

Starch, sugar, etc., 3.85 

Fat, 37 



CAULIFLOWER. 279 

The above data show that cabbage is composed chiefly of water, amount- 
ing to as much as 91 percent of its weight. Its principal food constituents 
are starch, sugar, and digestible fiber. Its most valuable food constituent 
is most probably the protein, of which it contains a large proportionate 
quantity. In all its forms cabbage is a wholesome, if not very nutritious, 
dish. 

Carrot. — The botanical name of the carrot is Daiicus carota L. French, 
carotte; German, Mohre; Italian, carota; Spanish, zanahoria. 

This plant is indigenous to Europe. The carrot is naturally a biennial 
plant, though it is often produced in a single season, and especial efforts are 
made to produce quick-growing carrots. This vegetable is much more com- 
mon in Europe than in the United States, and when grown here at all it is 
used chiefly in soups and often for cattle food. There is a large number of 
varieties of carrots, but practically all belong to the same botanical species. 
The flesh is often of a yellow tint, though blood-red carrots are grown and 
highly prized. 

Composition.^ 

Water, 88.59 percent 

Ash, 1.02 " 

Protein, 1.14 " 

Fiber, 1.27 " 

Starch, sugar, etc., 7.56 " 

Fat, 42 

It is seen from the above data that the carrot has almost exactlv the compo- 
sition of the garden beet. Its principal food value is in the sugar and other 
carbohydrates which it contains. It also has a notable proportion of protein 
and has almost 12 percent of solid matter. 

Cauliflower.— Cauliflower is a variety of cabbage the edible portion of 
Avhich is the extraordinarily modified and thickened flower cluster. It is more 
tender and delicate in its structure than the common cabbage. The French 
name is choufleur ; German, Blumenkohl; Italian, cavolfiore; Spanish, coliflor. 

It is highly prized when prepared for the table with a sauce. It is a dish 
which is much more common in Europe than in this country, where it is not 
appreciated as it should be. There is a large number of varieties produced, 
chiefly by the different methods of cultivation and the effect of environment 
in which they are grown. 

Composition. — 

Water, 90.82 percent 

Ash, 81 

Protein, 1.62 " 

Fiber, 1.02 " 

Sugar, starch, etc., 4.94 " 

Fat, 79 " 

The cauliflower is very close to the cabbage in composition, having, however, 



28o VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS, 

a slightly larger proportion of digestible carbohydrates and a much larger 
proportion of fat. Its dietetic value, however, is not notably different from 
that of the cabbage. 

Celery. — One of the most important vegetables upon the table in this 
country is celery. The botanical name of celery is Apium graveolens L. The 
French name is celeri; German, Sellerie; Italian, sedano; Spanish, apio. 

Celery is indigenous to Europe. It is eaten in its young state, and is most 
valued when the stalks are bleached. This is accomplished by hilling up 
the earth around them or protecting them from the light by boards or other- 
wise. Kept in the dark in this way the green color fades and the stalks be- 
come more crisp and brittle. There are several kinds of celery grown, 
but these are chiefly due to the different methods of cultivation. Celery 
is not only eaten raw but also stewed and is a common constituent of soup. 
Celery seeds are supposed to have not only a condimental but a medicinal 
value. 

Chicory. — The botanical name of chicory is Cichorium intybiis L, In 
French it is called chicoree sauvage; German, wilde or bittere Chichorie; 
Italian, cicoria selvatica; Spanish, achicoria amarga o agreste. 

The wild chicory is used chiefly, even in its cultivated state, for salad 
purposes, the roots not being of any value on account of their smallness. The 
chicory, however, develops under cultivation a large root like the carrot or 
turnip, and this variety of chicory is used chiefly on account of the roots, 
which, when they are roasted properly, are highly prized as a substitute for 
coffee. The common wild chicory has been used from time immemorial 
as a salad. The leaves have rather a bitter taste and are more highly prized 
for salad purposes when mixed with lettuce or other leaves which have a less 
pronounced flavor. The variety of chicory of which the roots are used as 
a substitute for coffee is known as "Brunswick chicory," or Magdeburg 
large-rooted chicory. 

Composition 0} the Root. — 

Water, 79.20 percent 

Ash, I. II 

Sugars, 60 

Inulin, 14.00 

Fiber, 1.29 

Protein and undetermined, 3.50 

Starch does not appear to be among the carbohydrates in chicory but 
inulin takes its place. In this respect chicory resembles the artichoke in 
its composition. 

Roasted Chicory. — When chicory is used as a substitute for coffee or as 
a substance added to coffee it is roasted, and its composition is thus materially 
changed, as is represented by the following data: 



CUCUMBERS. 281 

Moisture, -i3-3 percent 

Ash, 5.9 " 

Sugar, 12.4 " 

Inulin, 4-3 " 

Fiber, 6.9 

Caramel and undetermined, 57.2 " 

From the data of the above analysis the inuHn does not appear to have 
been very largely converted into levulose by roasting, but rather into the in- 
soluble carbohydrate matter. Whether or not, therefore, the inulin exists in 
the large proportion given in the analysis of the fresh chicory is a matter of 
some doubt. 

Cranberry. — The cranberry is grown extensively in the swampy grounds of 
the northern part of the United States, especially in New England, New Jersey, 
and Wisconsin. It is a red, hard berry, not at all pleasant to the taste in its 
fresh state, very acid, but greatly valued during the autumn and winter months 
when stewed with sugar and served as a sauce, especially with turkey. Its 
chief use, in fact, is to eat with turkey or chicken. The cranberry is a fruit 
which contains naturally a small quantity of benzoic acid. 

Composition. — 

Water, S6. i o percent 

Solids, , I3-QO " 

Soluble solids, 8.43 " 

Acidity, i .98 " 

(Measured as grams of sulfuric acid per 100 grams of material.) 

Cress. — The botanical name of cress is Lepidiitm sativum L. French, 
cresson alenois; German, Garten-Kresse; ItaHan, agretto; Spanish, mas- 
tuerzo. 

It is a plant which is indigenous to Persia. It grows in this country in 
moist gardens and particularly in the warmer parts of the country. The real 
water cress belongs to a different species, its botanical name being Rorija 
nasturtium. It grows only in water, in which it differs from the preceding 
variety. It is highly prized as an aromatic flavoring material and for table use. 
There are very many varieties in cultivation. 

Cucumbers. — The botanical name of cucumber is Cucumis sativus L. 
French, concombre; German, Gurke; Italian, cetriulo; Spanish, cohombro. 

The cucumber is indigenous to East India, but is now cultivated in all coun- 
tries. It is a plant which develops vines which often run to great distances. 
The cucumber is used almost exclusively in its green state, and the very young 
cucumbers are most highly prized for making pickles, though all sizes are used 
for that purpose, from the very smallest to the giant variety. The number of 
varieties cultivated is extremely great. The variety known as the gherkin 
is highly prized for pickling. 



282 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS FRUITS. 

Composition of the Cucumber. — 

Water, 95-99 percent 

Ash, 46 " 

Protein, 81 " 

Fiber, 69 

Starch, sugar, etc., i .83 " 

Fat, 22 " 

The above data show that the cucumber is not much more than solid water, 
there being just enough of other material to give it a flavor and consistence. 

Egg Plant. — Another vegetable which is highly prized for the table is the egg 
plant, Solamim me/ongena L. French, aubergine; German, Eierpflanze; 
Italian, petronciano; Spanish, berengena. 

The egg plant is indigenous to India. Its name is derived from the shape of 
some of its varieties, though many of them have ceased to resemble the egg in 
appearance. There is a large number of varieties, but the one which is known 
as the white egg plant looks more like an egg both in shape and color than most 
of the others. 

Composition. — 

Water, 92.9s percent 

Ash, 50 " 

Protein, 1.15 " 

Fiber, : 77 " 

Starch, sugar, etc., 4.34 " 

Fat, 31 

The egg plant is a highly succulent vegetable containing only a little more 
than 7 percent of solid matter, and this is chiefly sugar, starch, and other 
digestible carbohydrates. 

Garlic. — The botanical name of garlic is Allium sativum L. French, ail 
ordinaire; German, GewohnHcher Knoblauch; Italian, aglio; Spanish, ajo 
vulgar. 

This highly prized aromatic vegetable is indigenous to southern Europe. It 
is a perennial plant, and the edible bulbous portion grows chiefly underground. 
This part is used for spicing food. It is eaten in large quantities by the Latin 
nations of southern Europe, and is employed throughout the world as a season- 
ing or flavoring for many dishes. When eaten in excess it makes the breath ex- 
tremely disagreeable, as can be witnessed by all who have traveled in the Latin 
countries of Europe and even among the South Germans. Garlic is not eaten to 
any extent by our native citizens, but is used by our first-class cooks exten- 
sively as a seasoning. A little of it is known to go a great way. Its composi- 
tion is very much like that of the onion. A wild garlic grows in the United 
States over wide areas. It is often eaten by cows, and it imparts to the milk 
a very disagreeable flavor and smell. 

Gourds. — Gourds themselves are not very much used for edible purposes, 
but the varieties which include all the species of pumpkin and squash belong 



KALE. 283 

to the important vegetable foods in the United States. The most important 
member of this family is the pumpkin, Ciiciirbita pepo L., which grows often 
to an enormous size and has a beautiful yellow color. The French name for 
the pumpkin is potiron; German, Kurbiss; Italian, zucca; Spanish, calabaza 
totanera. 

The pumpkin of California, especially, is noted for its gigantic proportions. 
The pumpkin is used very extensively in New England, as well as other parts of 
the country, for making pies, and is also used as a sauce. The pumpkin is not 
eaten raw. As a cattle food it is highly prized in all parts of the country, and 
when fed to milch cows it imparts to the butter, even in the winter, a delicate 
amber tint. 

Composition 0} the Flesh 0} the Pumpkin. — ■ 

Water, 93-39 percent 

Ash, 67 

Protein, 91 

Fiber, 98 

Sugar, starch, etc., 3.93 

Fat, 12 

It is seen that the tlesh of the pumpkin is essentially a watery food, the chief 
ingredient of the solid matter being sugar. Its value, therefore, as a food is 
more condimental than nutritive. 

Horse-radish. — The botanical name of horse-radish is Cochlearia armo- 
racia L. French, raifort sauvage; German, Meerrettig; Italian, rafano; 
Spanish, taramago. 

The horse-radish is prized as one of the principal condimental vegetable 
substances in common use in the United States. It is particularly used with 
oysters and other foods of similar character and as a sauce or spice in a salad. 
It is indigenous to Europe, but is now cultivated e\'erywhere. There are 
many varieties, but they are all characterized by a sharp, pungent taste and 
odor. 

Adulteration 0} Horse-radish. — Other vegetable substances, as, for instance, 
the more highly spiced aromatic turnips, are often substituted for horse- 
radish. 

Horse-radish is often prepared by proper grinding mixed with vinegar 
and sold in sealed bottles. There is no objection to this practice provided the 
samples are not kept too long. When convenient, however, it is better to 
purchase the plant and grate it immediately before using. 

Kale. — Kale is a variety of cabbage which is somewhat different botanically 
from the common cabbage. This form of cabbage does not make a firm head, 
but grows only with free leaves. It is especially adapted for use in much the 
same manner as the common substances known by the housewife as greens. 
It is a hardy plant and grows well even in cold climates. There are a great 
many varieties of kale, and the composition is practically that of the cabbage. 



284 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

Leek. — The leek is of the same variety of plant as the garlic. Its botanical 
name is Allium porrum L. French, poireau; German, Lauch; ItaHan, porro; 
Spanish, puerro. 

The leek is thought to be indigenous to Switzerland, though this is not quite 
certain. It is closely related to the garlic and onion and is valued for the same 
purposes, namely, its highly aromatic condimental character. 

Lettuce. — Am.ong the most valued of the succulent vegetables is the lettuce. 
Its botanical name is Lactuca saliva L. French, laitue cultivee; German, Lat- 
tich; Italian, lattuga; Spanish, lechuga. 

Lettuce is thought to be indigenous to India or Central Asia. It has been cul- 
tivated, however, for so long that its origin is a matter of doubt. There is a 
legion of varieties of lettuce, but they all have essentially the same character- 
istics and have little food value. Lettuce is now found practically throughout 
the whole year in all civilized countries, being grown under glass in winter so as 
to furnish a continuous supply for the markets throughout the year. It is used 
chiefly as salad, and among the varieties which are most highly prized for this 
purpose are the cabbage lettuce and the variety known as Romaine. The 
Romaine is distinguished from the common lettuce by the shape of the leaves, 
which are much longer and narrower than those of ordinary lettuce. The Ro- 
maine lettuce is more highly prized by most connoisseurs as being more tender 
and brittle than the first variety. 

Composition. — 

Water, 93-68 percent 

Ash, i-6i 

Protein, i-4i " 

Fiber, 74 " 

Sugar, starch, etc., 2.18 

Fat, 38 

The data show that lettuce is a highly succulent vegetable. Its chief food 
constituents are protein and sugar. Its real value as a food is not shown by 
chemical analysis because it consists in a delicate, aromatic flavor which is not 
revealed by the crucible. 

Melons. — There are two kinds of melons eaten in the United States, — the 
first the watermelon, and the second the cantaloupe or muskmelon. In Europe 
the principal melon which is used is one having deep yellow flesh resembling the 
color of a pumpkin and known as the French melon. The botanical name is 
Cucumis melo L. French, melon; German, Melone; Italian, popone; 
Spanish, melon. 

The French melon is indigenous to Asia, but only the cultivated varieties are 
known now. The flesh is very sweet and is, as has already been said, 
usually of a deep yellow color, though there are many different varieties. 

Cantaloupe. — This is a general name given to the melons of the French type 
or varieties thereof growing in the United States. It is supposed to have had its 



WATERMELONS. 



285 



origin in Italy, though there is some doubt on the subject. The cantaloupe is 
of various sizes and shapes and various degrees of sweetness. In the United 
States the variety grown at Rocky Ford, Colorado, is noted for its sweetness 
and general palatability. For this reason many melons not grown at Rocky 
Ford are improperly sold under that name. There are a great many varieties 
of canteloupes. Generally the flesh of the cantaloupe is a greenish yellow 
instead of yellow. The muskmelon is quite like the cantaloupe in appearance 
and flavor. 

ANALYSIS OF JUICE OF MUSKMELONS. 
From Rind of Melon. 



Series No. 



495. 

554, 

587- 

6i3> 

Average 



"•5 
8.4 

10.3 



Nitrogen. 



Percent.. 
.106 



■"56 
.156 



Ash. 



Percent. 
1.23 
0.66 
0.47 
0-93 



Sucrose. 



.08^ 



0.82 



Percent. 

3-99 

2.47 

-•-5 
2.77 



2.87 



Reducing 
Sugar. 



Percent. 

3-97 
3.62 
2.84 
3-64 



3-52 



Juice of Edible Portion of Melon. 



Series No. 



495' 

554, 

587, 

623, 

Average, 



Brix. 



12.9 

8.2 

5-8 

"■5 



9.6 



Nitrogen . 



Percent. 
.130 
.069 

043 
■134 



.094 



Ash. 



Percent. 
1.20 

0.87 
0.50 
0-95 



0.88 



Sucrose. 



Percent. 
6.60 
4.96 
2.26 
5-19 



4-75 



Reducing 

Sugar. 



Percent. 
2.88 
2.47 

2-57 
2.25 



2-54 



Watermelons. — This i.s an entirely different variety from the French melon 
or cantaloupe. Its botanical name is Citnillus citriiUus L. French, melon 
d'eau; German, Wasser-Melone; Italian, cocomero, Spanish, sandia. 

The watermelon is said to be indigenous to Africa. It is grown extensively 
in the United States, especially in the southern part. It is a field crop of con- 
siderable importance, especially in the state of Georgia. The watermelon 
grows best on a sandy soil, though it requires it to be well fertilized. The vines, 
when they reach their full growth, cover the entire field. The melons often 
grow to a very large size, — specimens weighing from 50 to 60 pounds being not 
unusual. The average size, however, is much less than that. The Georgia 
melon is somewhat oval in shape, reaching generally from a foot to eighteen 
inches in length and from a foot to fifteen inches in diameter. The flesh is 
generally red and the seeds usually black. The watermelon is in the market 
from early summer until the late autumn. It bears shipping quite well, 



286 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

and is sent usually in box cars without crating, and, if kept at a low tempera- 
ture, will remain palatable for many days or even weeks. The fresh ripe melon, 
however, is far superior in quality to any that are harvested partly green and 
kept for a long time. About forty or fifty, varieties of watermelons grow in the 
United States. 

Composition oj Melons. — The following data show the composition of the 
flesh of the muskmelon and the watermelon : 

Muskmelon : 

Water, 89.50 percent 

Ash, 60 " 

Protein, 60 " 

Fiber, 92 " 

Starch, sugar, etc., 8.20 " 

Fat, 18 " 

Watermelon : 

Water, 91-87 percent 

Ash, Zi 

Protein, 40 

Fiber, 55 

Starch, sugar, etc., 6.65 

Fat, 20 

The above data show that the edible portion of the muskmelon contains more 
nutrient matter than that of the watermelon, the difference being chiefly in the 
content of water and carbohydrates. 

Okra.^ — The French name for okra is gom])o; Italian, ibisco; Spanish, 
gombo. 

Okra is a vegetable grown very largely in the United States and especially 
valued for use in soup making. For this purpose the young seed-vessels are 
employed. The seed pods of the okra are long, tapering, and rigid by reason 
of quite sharp angles. The okra is often known as gombo or gumbo. 

Composition. — 

Water, 87.41 percent 

Ash, 74 " 

Protein, 1.99 " 

Fiber, 3.42 " 

Starch, sugar, etc., 6.04 " 

Fat, 40 

Onion. — The botanical name of the onion is Allium cepa L. The French 
nameisognon; German, Zwiebel; Italian, cipolla; Spanish, cebolla. 

The onion is a plant which is valued for edible purposes throughout the 
whole world. It is supposed to have been indigenous to Asia, but its exact 
origin is not known with certainty. Both the pulp and the part of the stem 
immediately attached thereto are edible. In fact in very young plants the 
whole plant is edible. Its highly aromatic character and flavor rather than 
its nutritive qualities give it its chief value. The onion is eaten both raw and in 



PEAS. 287 

various cooked forms. Cooking the onion, especially boiling, expels a large 
part of its most pungent character, so that the cooked onion does not manifest 
itself so unpleasantly in the breath when eaten as is the case with the raw onion. 
The onion is also very commonly eaten in this country fried, especially 
with beefsteak. The variety of onions cultivated is legion, Ijut they are 
due rather to different methods of cultivation, etc., than to botanical char- 
acter. 

Composition. — 



Water, 87 

Ash, 

Protein, i 

Fiber, 

Sugar, starch, etc., g 

Fat 



55 percent 

57 " 
40 " 



The onion, it is seen, is rather poor in protein but rich in sugar and allied 
bodies. 

Parsnips. — The botanical name of the parsnip is Pastinaca sativa L. 
French, panais; German, Pastinake; Italian, pastinaca; Spanish, chirivia. 

The parsnip is nearly related to the carrot in its appearance and also its prop- 
erties. The root is usually long and straight and gradually tapering. It, how- 
ever, often has other shapes, as is the case with the carrot and beet. 

Composition. — 

Water, 80.34 percent 

Ash, 1.03 

Protein, 1.35 

Fiber, 53 

Sugar, starch, etc., 16.09 

Fat, 66 

The above data show that the parsnip is not much richer in nutrients than 
most of the roots grown, except in sugar and starch content. The large 
quantity of carbohydrates gives it its chief food value. These carbohydrates 
are not by any means all sugar and starch, but include a very considerable pro- 
portion of cellulose which is more or less digestible. 

Peas. — The botanical name of the pea plant is Pisum sativum L. French 
pois; German, Erbse; Italian, pisello; Spanish, guisante. 

The pea is quite as highly valued for table use as the bean, and, perhaps, is 
almost as extensively cultivated. The pea, however, is not usually eaten in the 
pod. It is probably indigenous to Central Europe, but has been so long culti- 
vated that an exact history of its original distribution is not known. There, 
are many different varieties of the pea, but the one most highly prized is a small 
and very sweet pea. The larger variety does not have the palatability and 
other highly prized edible qualities that distinguish the smaller variety. The 
pea is found in the markets of the United States throughout the whole year, 
bsin^ grown under cover in the winter time. It becomes an abundant crop 



288 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

from early in the spring until very late in the autumn. Immense quantities 
of peas are preserved by canning, and in this condition they retain their edible 
properties almost without impairment throughout the entire winter. The pea 
is valued as a food in many forms. 



Composition. — 


Water. 


Ash. 


Protein. 


Fiber. 


Starch, 
Sugar, etc. 


Fat. 




Percent. 


Percent. 


Percent. 


Percent 


Percent. 


Percent. 


Green pea, 

Dry pea, 


79-93 

12.62 


.78 
3- 1 1 


3-87 
27.04 


1.63 
3-9° 


13-30 

51-75 


•49 
1-58 



The above data show that the pea is a markedly nitrogenous food, especially 
the dry pea. Even in the green pea nearly four percent of its weight is protein. 

A comparison of the composition of the pea with that of the bean shows that 
the pea is even more nitrogenous in character than the bean. 

Potatoes. — One of the most important vegetables as well as food prod-' 
ucts in general is that class of products to which the name potato is given. 
The term strictly should apply only to that class known as white or Irish 
potato {Solanum tuberosum L.). The potato, as indicated by the name, belongs 
to a family of plants which is considered poisonous, but in the cultivated var- 
iety the poisonous principle has been practically eliminated. The potato 
belongs, essentially, to the starchy group of foods. If we assume, which is 
very nearly correct, that the average content of water in different varieties 
of potatoes at the time they are most suitable for edible purposes is 80 per- 
cent, it is found that at least three-fourths of the remaining solid dry matter 
is starch. The potato contains a trace of sugar and notable quantities of 
other carbohydrates than starch and sugar, namely, fiber. It also contains 
a very small proportion of nitrogen and mineral matter. 

The potato is grown chiefly in temperate climates. It flourishes particu- 
larly well in the northern part of Europe, in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
and in the northern portion of the United States. The northern part of 
Maine, especiaUv, is noted for the production of potatoes of high edible quali- 
ties. It grows very well also in the southern part of the United States. The 
potato may be produced from seed, but that method of propagation has 
long since ceased to be practiced for agricultural purposes. The potatoes 
of commerce are produced from the eyes of the tubers. The best results 
in the growth of potatoes are secured in the loose somewhat sandy soil into 
which the roots of the plant can easily penetrate and which gives way readily 
to make place for the growing tuber. Hard, clay soils are unsuited to the 
growth of this vegetable. The planting is accomplished in the early spring 
after a thorough preparation of the seed bed by plowing to the usual depth, 
often subsoiling and reducing the surface of the soil to the proper tilth. The 
cuttings of potatoes or the whole potatoes are planted in rows to a depth of 
•two or three inches, where they may sprout and even reach the surface at 



POTATOES. 289 

a temperature which at times may fall below the frost point on the surface 
of the soil. The leaf of the potato, when it has once appeared above the sur- 
face of the soil, is very susceptible to the action of frost. If killed at an early 
stage it may grow again without replanting. The potato is a crop which 
the farmer may plant early in the spring. There are other varieties which 
are planted later, even in the middle of summer, and produce good results. 
The planting season may continue over a period of two or three months. 
During the growth of the crop by the cultivation of the soil the surface is 
kept in good tilth, the weeds and grass prevented from growing, and the soil 
gradually drawn up around the growing tubers with the hoe or plow in the 
form of ridges. This heaping up of the soil tends to promote the develop- 
ment of the tubers, affording them a loose and more abundant bedding and 
a greater supply of plant food. 

The greatest enemies to whicli tlie potato crop is obnoxious r.re found in 
the various forms of the potato bug {Doryphora decemlineata), which feed upon 
their leaves. To prevent the ravages of these insects it becomes necessary 
to dust over the leaves of the growing plants some powerful insecticide which 
will destroy the life of the insects feeding upon them. The active ingredient 
of these insecticides is usually arsenic. Fortunately the growing tuber does 
not absorb, so far as known, even traces of arsenic, or at least not more than 
the merest trace, which may be used for insecticidal purposes. It is quite 
impossible in most localities to secure a crop of potatoes without such treat- 
ment. The alternative is a constant inspection of the growing plant and the 
removal and killing of the bugs as they appear, but this is only practicable 
over very small areas as its general application would increase the cost of 
the product beyond the reach of the average consumer. 

Yield. — Potatoes are produced in every state and territory of the United 
States. The statistics for the year ended December 31, 1909, show that the 
total area devoted to potatoes in the United States is 3,525,000 acres. The 
largest area in any one State is found in New York, namely, 438,000 acres, 
and the smallest area, aside from Arizona, not reported, is found in New- 
Mexico, namely, 1000 acres. The yield of potatoes for the year is given as 
376,537,000 bushels, the average yield per acre for the country being 107 
bushels. The largest total yield was in New York, the largest yield per acre 
being reported from Maine, 256 bushels, while the smallest yields are found 
in some of the southern States. The average price per bushel for the whole 
country at the farm is 53.3 cents, and the total farm value of the crop $206,545,- 
000. Generally potatoes command higher prices in some of the southern 
States, while the lower prices are found in Maine and the central west. The 
weight of a bushel of potatoes is 60 pounds. As the average amount of 
fermentable matter in potatoes grown in the United States is 20 percent, 



290 VEGETABLES. CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

the total weight of fermentable matter in a bushel of potatoes is 12 pounds, 
which would yield approximately 6 pounds or 3.6 quarts of alcohol. 

Composition. — Starch content: The quantity of starch in American grown 
potatoes varies from 15 to 20 percent. Probably 18 percent might be stated 
as the general average of the best grades of potatoes. In this connection it 
must be remembered that at the present time potatoes are grown in the United 
States chiefly for table use. Generally, only the imperfect or injured samples 
are used for stock feeding or for starch making, and this condition will prob- 
ably continue as long as good edible potatoes bring a higher price for table 
use than can be obtained by utilizing them for starch or for feeding purposes. 

Under the microscope the granules of potato starch have a distinctive 
appearance. They appear as egg-shaped bodies on which, especially the: 
larger ones, various ring-like lines are seen. With a modified (polarized) 
light under certain conditions of observation a black cross is developed upon 
the granule. It is not difficult for an expert microscopist to distinguish 
potato from other forms of starch by its appearance, which is well shown in 
Figs. 39 and 40. Many of the granules are quite large, and most of them 
are ovoid in shape. 

The quantity of protein in the potato is quite low compared with that of 
cereal foods; in round numbers it may be said to be 2.5 percent. The potato 
contains very little material which is capable of fermentation aside from 
starch and sugars. 

Sugar content: Although the potato is not sweet to the taste in a fresh state, 
it contains notable quantities of sugar. This sugar is lost whenever the potato 
is used for starch-making purposes, but is utilized when it is used for the 
manufacture of industrial alcohol. The percentage of sugar of all kinds 
in the potato rarely goes above i percent. The average quantity is probably 
not far from 0.35 percent, including sugar, reducing sugar, and dextrin, 
all of which are soluble in water. In the treatment of potatoes for starch 
making therefore it may be estimated that 0.35 percent of fermentable 
matter is lost in the wash water. 

One German author, Saare, claims to have found much larger quantities 
of sugar in potatoes than those just mentioned. The minimum quantity 
found by this author is 0.4 percent, and the maximum 3.4 percent, giving 
a mean of 1.9 percent. Ten varieties of potatoes used for the manufacture 
of industrial alcohol were examined in the securing of these data. It appears 
that some varieties have a greater tendency to produce sugar than others. 
The German variety known as "Daber" contains the smallest quantities 
of sugar, while the variety known as "Juno" contains the largest quantities. 
The percentages of sugar, as reported by Saare, however, are larger than those 
reported by other observers, and probably are larger than are usually found. 

Average composition: Frazier, of the Cornell station, has collected analyses 



POTATOES. 



291 




Fig. 39. — Potato Starch (X 200). — {Courtesy Bureau 0/ Chemistry.) 




Fig. 40. — Potato Starch Under Polarized Light (X 200). — {Courtesy Bureau of Chemistry.) 



292 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

of a large number of different varieties of potatoes, and finds them to have 
the following average composition: 

Water, 75-oo percent 

Starch, 19-87 " 

Sugars and dextrin, 77 " 

Fat, 08 

Cellulose, ^^ " 

Ash, 1. 00 " 

The following analyses show in detail the composition of potatoes from 
different localities: 

Analysis of Maine potatoes: The Bureau of Chemistry a few years ago 
made an investigation in connection with the experiment station in Maine 
of the composition of potatoes grown in that state used for table purposes 
and for starch making. Some of the best varieties grown in different parts 
of the state were subjected to analysis, and the following results show them 
to be of quite uniform composition: 

Analyses of Maine Potatoes.* 



Variety. 



Hebron, 

Do 

White Elephant, 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Delaware,..:... 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Carmen, 

Do 

Average, . 









Protein 




Water. 


Starch. 


Fiber. 


'Nitrogen 
X6.2S). 


Ash. 


Percent. 


Percent. 


Percent. 


Percent. 


Percent. 


79.72 


16.Q4 


0.90 


2.12 


0.76 


78-13 


18.59 


•72 


2.06 


.78 


76.81 


19.96 


.84 


2.19 


•99 


76.Q2 


20.38 


.90 


2.31 


.87 


78.74 


15.96 


.64 


2.25 


.92 


75-21 


19-31 


.61 


2.12 


•83 


75.88 


18.81 


•56 


2.25 


.96 


77-44 


18.12 


•63 


2.06 


.88 


75-56 


18.14 


•56 


I.81 


1.04 


78-13 


18.62 


•63 


1-75 


.98 


76.02 


19.20 


.61 


2.06 


I.OI 


76-93 


18.63 


.61 


2.19 


•94 


75-72 


18.63 


•55 


2.31 


•95 


77.64 


16.26 


.61 


2.56 


.91 


76.87 


18.03 


.66 


2.06 


.90 


76-57 


17.07 


•59 


2.38 


.76 


77.02 


18.29 


.66 


2.16 


.91 



Specific 
Gravity. 



1.0604 

1-0795 
1.0867 
1.0742 
1.0803 
I. 1058 
I. 0921 
1.0906 
I.1129 
1. 088 1 
1.0852 
1.0904 

1-0745 
1.1120 
1.0967 
1.0804 



Analysis of Vermont potatoes: Analyses made in Vermont and published 
in the report of the Vermont Experiment Station for 1901 show an average 
content of starch considerably less than that above given, namely: 

Water, 79-4i percent 

Starch, 14-51 " 

Sugars and de.xtrins, 1-44 

Cellulose, 36 

Protein, 2.28 " 

Ether extract, 06 " 

Ash 1-26 I' 

Undetermined, 68 

* Maine Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 57, p. 147. 



POTATOES. 293 

Composition of Potatoes used in France jor Industrial Purposes. — The fol- 
lowing is regarded in France as an average composition of the potato suitable 
for industrial purposes :| 

Water, 71.00 percent 

Starch, 18.00 

Sugar, etc., 1.06 

Cellulose, 1.65 

Protein, 2.12 

Fat, II 

Ash, 1 .60 

The total fermentable matter, as seen above, is a little over 19 percent, 
not allowing anything for the cellulose which is fermented. As a portion of 
the cellulose may also become a source of alcohol, it is observed that the 
average percentage of fermented matter in the French potato used for indus- 
trial purposes is not far from 20 percent. 

The following varieties show a variation in starch content of 6.8 percent, 
the minimum being 15.9 and the maximum 22.7 percent: 

Red starchy, 22.7 percent of starch 

Shaw, 20.5 

Institute of Beauvais, 17.7 

Kernours, 17.Q 

White Elephant, 16.0 

British Red, 16.0 

Giant Blue, 15.0 

Analysis of Potatoes from German Sources. — Average composition and 
starch content: The content of starch in potatoes examined in the laboratory 
of the Association of German Spirit Manufacturers during the year 1905 
varied from 12.1 to 25.1 percent. Eleven percent of the total number ex- 
amined contained between 12 and 14 percent of starch, 20 percent between 
14 and 16 percent of starch, 13 percent between 16 and 18 percent of 
starch, 24 percent between 18 and 20 percent, 24 percent also between 
20 and 22 percent, and 8 percent between 22 and 25.1 percent. 

These data show that 56 percent of the total number of samples examined 
contained between 18 and 25 percent of starch. It is evident, therefore, that 
the general average content of starch in the potatoes used in the German dis- 
tilleries is not far from 18 to 20 percent. 

The mean composition of potatoes as given by three German authorities, 
namely, Konig, Lintner, and Wolff, is as follows : 

Average Analysis of Potatoes by Three German Authorities. 

Konig. 
Constituent. Percent. 

Water, 75.48 

Protein, i .q5 

Fat, 15 

Starch and sugar, 20.69 

Crude cellulose, 75 

Ash, 98 

t "Encyclopedie Agricole," E. Saillard. 



Lintner. 

Percent. 

76.0 

2.1 


Wolff. 
Percent. 

75-0 
2.1 


.2 


.2 


19.7 
.8 


20.7 
I.I 



294 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

The above data show the average content of fermentable matter in German 
potatoes, as determined by three of their leading authorities, to be about 20 
percent. The potatoes used for the manufacture of alcohol in Germany 
are not of the variety raised for edible purposes. In a large number of ex- 
periment stations in Germany systematic efforts have been made for many 
years to grow a potato rich in starch without respect to its edible qualities. 
These potatoes are coarser in structure and less palatable than those grown 
for the table. The object of the cultivation of this class of potatoes is to 
produce as much starch and other fermentable matters per acre as possible. 
It is evident that our own experiment stations should undertake work of a 
similar character if the potato is to be used to any great extent in the manu- 
facture of industrial alcohol. There is no doubt of the fact that success 
equal to that attained by the German experimenters will attend any sys- 
tematic efforts of this kind in our country. Not only will larger crops per acre 
of potatoes be grown, but these potatoes will contain larger quantities of starch 
and other fermentable substances. If the crop of potatoes is to remain at 
the present average, namely, less than 100 bushels per acre, profitable returns 
for alcohol making can not be expected, either Ijy the farmer or by the manu- 
facturer. A much larger cjuantity must be grown and, if possible, at less 
expense, in order that encouraging profits may be realized. 

Maercker, one of the most celebrated of German authors, states that in 
certain instances the potato in Germany reaches a very high starch content. 
Some varieties, in exceptional instances, have shown as high as 29.4 percent, 
28.1 percent, and 27.3 percent, respectively. In warm, dry seasons potatoes 
often are found containing from 25 to 27 percent of starch. According to 
Maercker, the sugar content, including all forms of sugar, varies greatly. Per- 
fectly ripe potatoes contain generally no sugar or only a fractional percentage. 
When potatoes are stored under unfavorable conditions, large quantities of 
sugar may be developed, amounting to as high as 5 percent altogether. In 
general, it may be stated that the content of sugar of all kinds will vary from 
0.4 percent to 3.4 percent, according to conditions. 

While potatoes grown thus to increase the content of starch are not generally 
used as food, yet they are nutritious but not as palatable as those grown es- 
pecially for table purposes. 

Ash analyses: The mineral matters which the potato extracts from the 
soil or from the fertilizers which are added thereto consist chietiy of phosphate 
of potash. The mean average composition of the ash of the potato is shown 
in the following table:* 

Potash (K2O), 60. ^7 percent 

SodaCNa^O), 2.62 

Lime (CaO), 2.57 " 

* Maercker, "Handbuch der Spiritusfabrikation," p. 99. 



POTATOES. 



295 



Magnesia (MgO) 4.6q percent 

Iron oxid (Fe^Oj), i.iS 

Phosphoric acid (P0O5), i7-33 

Sulfuric acid (SO3), 6.49 

Silicic acid (Si(.^2)i 2.13 

Chlorin, 3.1 1 

This analysis was made upon the so-called pure ash, deprived of its unburned 
carbon, and freed of sand and carbon dioxid. 

Effect of fertilization on the yield and starch content: Experience in Germany 
has shown not only that liberal fertihzation with nitrogen is favorable to the 
production of a large crop of potatoes, but also that this is accomplished with- 
out decreasing the percentage of starch therein. The following table shows 
the increase in yield, percentage of starch, and amount of starch obtained by 
nitrogen fertilization, the results being expressed in hectares* and kilograms: 



Effect of Nitrogen Fertilization on Yield and Starch Content of Potatoes. 



Variety of Potato. 



Seed, 

Champion, 

Imperator, 

Magnum Bonum, 

Aurelie, 

Reichskanzler, 

Juno, 

Amaranth, 

Charlotte, 

Gelbfieischige Zwiebel,. 

Dabersche, 

Weissfleischige Zwiebel, 

Schneerose, 

Nassengrunder, 

Gelbe Rose, 

Hortensie, 

Richter's Lange Weisse, 

Rosalie, 

Achilles, 

Alcohol, 

Average, 



Without Nitrogen. 


With Nitrogen. 




Yield of 


Yield of 




Yield of 


Yield of 


Starch. 


tubers per 


starch per 


Starch. 


tubers per 


starch per 




hectare. 


hectare. 




hectare. 


hectare. 


Percent. 


Kilograms. 


Kilograms. 


Percent. 


Kilograms. 


Kilograms. 


18.01 


20,900 


3,780 


18.17 


24,870 


4,507 


21-33 


19,510 


4,152 


21.48 


24,470 


5,233 


19.00 


22,560 


4,23s 


18.70 


26,830 


5,007 


18.41 


19,170 


3,522 


18.07 


22,510 


4,057 


19-47 


18,950 


3,653 


19-75 


23,550 


4,6og 


22.78 


14,300 


3,236 


22.61 


17.250 


3,875 


19-33 


17,590 


3,422 


19.92 


20,900 


4,199 


22.47 


16,180 


3,619 


22.84 


18,310 


4,188 


19.42 


17,041 


3,305 


19.67 


20,774 


4,081 


19.97 


19,888 


3,946 


19.91 


21,772 


4,323 


21.82 


17,377 


3,778 


21.80 


20,313 


4.399 


20.51 


16,877 


3,442 


20.58 


19.501 


3.936 


18.84 


19,653 


3,724 


18.66 


22,343 


4,186 


19.08 


19,701 


3,725 


22.12 


21,889 


4,813 


21.09 


16,847 


3,547 


20.60 


20,177 


4,129 


17.72 


22,416 


3,907 


17-45 


26,381 


4,532 


19-37 


22,134 


4,267 


19.19 


24,490 


4,664 


18.27 


19,866 


3,557 


18.25 


22,186 


4.003 


21.02 


18,886 


3,962 


20.93 


20,913 


4.376 


16.47 


16,270 


2,673 


16.31 


20,339 


3,327 


19.77 


18,806 


3.673 


19.85 


21,998 


4.332 



It is evident from the data given in .the table that the liberal application 
of nitrogenous fertilizers increases the yield per acre of tubers and of starch 
to a very marked extent, although the average percentage of starch present is 
increased very little. Converting the average data given in the foregoing 
table into their equivalents in pounds per acre, we have the following 

* I hectare = 2.471 acres, i kilogram = 2.205 pounds. 



296 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

results: Without nitrogen — yield of tubers, 16,781 pounds per acre; yield 
of starch, 3,277 pounds per acre. With nitrogen — yield of tubers, 19,629 
pounds per acre; yield of starch, 3,856 pounds per acre. 

The following varieties of potatoes are considered in Germany the best for 
the manufacture of alcohol: Wohltman, Silesia, Agricultural Union, Athe- 
nena, Prince Bismarck, Richter's Imperator, and Maercker. A recent con- 
sular report on the potato as a source of alcohol in Germany shows the following 
yields per acre and percentages of starch: 

Yield and Starch Content of Potatoes Grown in Germany for Alcohol 

Production. 

Varieties. ^'Icre.^'' Starch. 

Kilograms. Percent. 

Professor Wohltman, 3>42o 16.3 

Iduna, 2,845 16.4 

Topaz, 3,260 17.3 

Sas, 3,990 18.3 

Leo, 4,120 17.0 

Richter's Imperator, 4,760 15.4 

Silesia, 3,675 16.3 

Professor Maercker, 4,280 14.5 

Use of the Potato. — In addition to its value as human food the potato has 
other economical relations. It is used in many countries almost e.xclusively 
in the production of starch for the laundry and for general domestic uses. 

The potato is not very extensively used for starch production in the United 
States except in the state of Maine and perhaps in one or two other localities. 
The starch of the potato has a particular value for use in the textile industry 
in the sizing of cloth. Practically all o£ the potato starch which is produced 
in the United States is devoted to that purpose, and for this reason it brings 
a higher price than the ordinary starch made of Indian corn. 

Technique of the Production 0} Starch from Potatoes. — There is scarcely 
any manufacturing process which is more simple in its method than the 
manufacture of starch from potatoes. The process consists simply in the 
rasping or grinding of the potato to a tine pulp, which is afterward placed 
upon sieves in a thin layer and sprinkled with water which detaches the 
starch granules from the pulp matter, carries them through the sieve, and thus 
separates them from the fibrous portion. 

It will be interesting to the general reader, on account of the importance 
of this product, to give a brief description of the method employed and the 
results obtained. 

Potato Starch. — In this country potato starch is manufactured chiefly in 
Maine, Wisconsin, and Colorado, The factories are of a very primitive type, 
the machinery consisting of a rasper constructed usually by wrapping a 
wooden cylinder with sheet-iron punctured so that the ragged edges of the hole 
are on the exterior surface as shown in Fig. 41. Water is added at the time of 



POTATOES. 



297 



rasping, and the starch pulp goes onto gauze shaking tables where the starch 
grains are washed through the sieve, as indicated in Figs. 42 and 43. The 
separated starch and water go into settling tanks. Where the starch has 
settled into a firm mass it is broken up and sent to the drying kiln. Potato 
starch is highly prized as a 
sizing in the textile industry. 
Use oj the Potato in the 
Manujacture of Spirits. — A 
much more important tech- 
nical use of the potato is 
in the manufacture of dis- 
tilled spirits. Distilled spirits 
made from the potato are 
not generally used for pot- 
able purposes but are de- 
voted to industrial uses. In the United States, very little if any distilled 
spirits are made from the potato. In Europe, however, especially in Ger- 
many, the industry is one of great magnitude. Practically all of the indus- 
trial spirits used in Germany and in many parts of Europe are made 
from the potato. The process is a simple one. The pulp of the potato, or 




Fig. 41. — Raspini; ("^ i im>i-:r i^or M \ki\(, Si arch. — {Coiir- 
li'sy Depait)iu')it of Ag) uiiltiii f.) 




Fig. 42.— Shaking Table for Separating the Starch from the Pulped '?otkto.— {Courtesy 

Department of Agriculture.) 

starch, separated therefrom is subjected to the action of malt or other diastatic 
action for the purpose of converting the starch into sugar. In some cases 
this conversion takes place by more strictly chemical means, namely, by 
heating the pulpy matter or the starch separated therefrom in a proper 
state of dilution, in contact with an acid at a high temperature and pressure. 



igS 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



Hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid is usually employed for this purpose. 
The action of the acid converts the starch into fermentable sugar, namely, 
dextrose, a form of sugar differing in its quality and character from that pro- 
duced by malt known as maltose. Both sugars, however, are fermentable 
to the same degree and produce, for equal quantities of sugar, the same quan- 
tity of alcohol. When the starch is converted into sugar by one or the other 
of these methods it is subjected to fermentation by an appropriate quantity 
of yeast which is of the same family as that used in the alcoholic fermenta- 
tion of other saccharine products. 

Special characters of yeast, however, are reserved for special purposes, 

since the variety of yeast 
determines to a certain ex- 
tent the character of the 
secondary products which 
are formed during fermen- 
tation and thus determine 
the character, flavor, and 
aroma of the finished prod- 
uct. After the fermenta- 
tion has been completed the 
residue is technically known 
as beer, and is subjected to 
distillation for the separa- 
tion of the spirit. 

A description of the proc- 
ess of distillation will be 
found in the second volume 
of this manual and is there- 
fore omitted here. 

Radish. — The botanical 
name of the radish is Ra- 
pkaniis sativus L. The 
French name is radis; Ger- 
man, Radies; Italian, rava- 
nello; Spanish, rabanito. 
The radish is a vegetable which is found throughout the whole year in all the 
principal markets of the United States, being grown under cover during the 
cold weather. It is ready for market within a short time after sowing, so that 
crop after crop can be grown during the year on the same soil. It is most 
highly prized when it is young, as it tends to acquire a pungent and bitter taste 
as it approaches maturity. The two principal varieties grown, as respects the 
roots, is the one having a long, tapering root, and the other a short, spherical 




Fig. 43. — The Potato Rasping Cylinder Arranged for 
Work. — {Courtesy Department of Agric%Mure.) 



SWEET POTATO. 299 

bulb. The latter are more prized for eating purposes. There are many va- 
rieties grown. 

Composition of Edible Portion. — 

Water, 9 1 .8 percent 

Protein, 1.3 " 

Fat, o. I 

Sugar, and other carbohydrates, 5.8 " 

Ash, ' ^. 0.7 " 

Rhubarb. — The botanical name for rhubarb is Rheum L. The French 
name is rhubarbe; German, Rhabarber; Italian, rabarbaro; Spanish, 
ruibarbo. 

Rhubarb is a vegetable which is widely distributed in the United States and 
grows generally very early in the spring. It is a highly acid plant, and is used 
chiefly as a sauce and for making pies. It requires a very large addition of 
sugar to make it palatable. It has medicinal properties which give it addi- 
tional value. There are many varieties grown. It is a plant that is ready for 
use very early in the spring, being available in the farmer's garden almost be- 
fore any other vegetable, and this makes it of still greater value. 

Composition of the Edible Stem. — 

Water, 92.67 percent 

Ash, 94 " 

Protein, 83 " 

Fiber, i.ii " 

Sugar, starch, etc., 3.26 " 

Fat, 1. 19 " 

The above data show that the rhubarb is practicall}^ valueless as food and is 
chiefly condimental. In regard to its nutrients the fat is in a larger proportion 
than in that of almost any other succulent vegetable. 

Squash. — Another variety of the gourd family which is highly prized as a 
food product is the squash. It is used in the same manner as the pumpkin, and 
is highly valued both as a food for man and domesticated animals. 

Composition of the Flesh of the Squash. — 

Water, 88.09 percent 

Ash, 1.72 

Protein, 92 

Fiber, i .04 

Sugar, starch, etc., 8.05 

Fat, iS 

The above data show that the squash is a much more nutritive substance 
than the pumpkin. In other respects it is little different in its composition, 
being only a dryer form of pumpkin. 

Sweet Potato. — The vegetable known as sweet potato is known botani- 
cally as Convolvulus batatas L. 

From the name it is seen that the sweet potato does not belong to the same 
botanical family as the potato itself. By reason, however, of its similar 



300 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



condition of growth and, to a certain extent, its chemical composition and uses, 
the term potato has, in this country at least, become to be universally applied 
to both, although the prefix "sweet" is quite commonly used with the sweet 
potato, whereas if any prefix is used with the potato, properly so-called, it is 
the word "white" or "Irish." The sweet potato is grown extensively in the 
United States and in other respects, agriculturally, may be regarded as com- 
plemental to the potato. 

While the potato grows best in the northern parts of the country and in 
mild climates, the sweet potato flourishes in the greatest abundance in the 
southern and warmer portions. In respect to the character of the soil the 
two vegetables are quite similar, both doing best in a sandy or loose soil, 
provided it is sufficiently supplied with plant food for the use of the growing 
plant. The sweet potato is a thickened root, and is propagated almost exclu- 
sively by means of shoots called "slips." 

Planting and Cultivation. — There is a very distinct difference between the 
planting of the sweet potato and that of the potato. The former are rarely 
planted in the field where the crop is to mature. It is quite a universal cus- 
tom to plant the sweet potato in beds where the young growth can be forced 
both by means of artificial heat and by a generous mulch of highly nutritious 
soil. The plants can then be set very early in the spring and by the time they 
are ready to be transplanted to the field have acquired a considerable size. 
When ready for transplanting the seed bed is prepared with the same 
care as that required for the potato. The ridging of the rows, which in the 
case of potatoes takes place during cultivation, is accomplished in the case 
of sweet potatoes before planting. If the soil is moist and the temperature 
not too high the young plants are removed from the seed bed and set on 
top of the apexes in the formed rows. The cultivation of the field during 
the growth of the crop is sufficient to keep the surface in good tilth and 
prevent the growth of weeds, grass, etc. Care must be exercised in the cul- 
tivation not to draw the earth away from the ridges which have been formed, 
but to increase their size by drawing the earth more and more toward the 
apex of the ridge. The cultivation is continued until the growing vines prac- 
tically cover the surface of the soil and thus form a natural mulch, which not 
only conserves the moisture and tilth of the soil but also prevents the growth 
of weeds and grass. The sweet potato, in respect of its flavor, is particularly 
sensitive to the influence of frost, also the leaves are more sensitive to frost 
than those of the potato. If a heavy frost is experienced before the tubers 
are harvested it is apt to impart an unpleasant taste to the potato and 
injure its edible qualities. For this reason, if it is not possible to harvest 
the potato before the advent of frost, it is advisable to cut the vines at the point 
where they emerge from the soil. When this has been done the injurious 
effects of the frost, above mentioned, are not experienced. In the southern 



SWEET I'OTATO. 



301 



portion of the country the sweet potato is often allowed to remain in the soil 
during the greater part of the winter, and, if the vines are removed, it keeps 
in excellent condition. 

Yield and Composition 0} the Sweet Potato. — As has already been mentioned, 
there is a general resemblance, in so far as chemical and nutritive properties 
are concerned, between the sweet potato and the potato. The sweet potato 
is usually colored a yellowish tint, due to the distribution of more or less 
xanthophyll throughout its substance. The sweet potato also contains not- 
able quantities of cane sugar, to which its name is due. It, however, contains 
large quantities of starch and fiber and small quantities of protein, resem- 
bling in this general manner the potato itself. The sweet potato has not 
been used in the United States for the making of alcohol. In the Azores 
great quantities of sweet potatoes are grown for this purpose, and make an 
alcohol of fine quality, which is used to a large extent in fortifying port wines. 
There are large areas in the United States, especially in the Southern States, 
where the sweet potato can be grown in great abundance. The experiments 
at the South Carolina station show that as high as 11,000 pounds of sweet 
potatoes can be grown })er acre. The percentage of starch is markedly greater 
than in the white or Irish potato. In all cases over 20 percent of starch was 
obtained in the South Carolina sweet potatoes, and in one instance over 24 
percent. As high as 2,600 pounds of starch were produced per acre. 

In addition to starch, the sweet potato contains notable quantities of sugar, 
sometimes as high as six percent being present, so that the total fermentable 
matter in the sweet potato may be reckoned at the minimum at 25 percent. 
A bushel of sweet potatoes weighs 55 pounds, and one-quarter of this is 
fermentable matter, or nearly 14 pounds. This would yield, approximately, 
7 pounds, or a little over one gallon of 95 percent alcohol. It may be fairly 
stated, therefore, in a general way, that a bushel of sweet potatoes will yield 
one gallon of industrial alcohol. The average yield of sweet potatoes, of 
course, is very much less than that given in the South Carolina reports, 
where heavy fertilization was practised. On plots to which no fertilizer was 
added the yield was about 8,000 pounds of sweet potatoes per acre, yield- 
ing in round numbers 1,900 pounds of starch. The quantity of sugar in the 
8,000 pounds is about 350 pounds, which, added to the starch, makes 2,250 
pounds of fermentable matter per acre. This will yield 1,125 pounds of in- 
dustrial alcohol of 95 percent strength, or approximately 160 gallons per 
acre. 

The yield of sweet potatoes in the above computation must be regarded 
as exceptionally high. A safer calculation will be based upon the yield of 
100 bushels of sweet potatoes per acre, a little above the average of the yield of 
the potato, or a total of 5,500 pounds per acre. One-quarter of this amount 
is fermentable matter — about 1,400 pounds — which would yield, approxi- 



T02 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



mately, 700 pounds of 95 percent alcohol, or 100 gallons of 95 percent alcohol 
per acre. In addition to the sugar in the form of sucrose, or common sugar, 
which the sweet potato contains, there is also an appreciable amount of non- 
crystallizable sugars. The total sugars in the sweet potato have* not been 
overstated in the above estimate. In fact, the contrary, rather, is true, since 
the two sugars together probably average about six percent of the weight cf 
the potato. If the average quantity of starch in the sweet potato is 20 per- 
cent, which is rather a low estimate, the total fermentable matter in the sweet 
potato is 26 percent instead of 25 percent, as estimated above. 



Changes in Composition of the Swe^t Potato of Different Varieties on Storing.* 
First Lot (November 28). 



Name of Vakiety. 



Georgia Buck 
Bunch Yam . 
Do . . . 
Horton Yam 
Georgia Buck 
Vineless Yam 
Hanover Yam 
Georgia Yam . 



Average 71-72 



Per- 
cent. 
75-35 
7^-37 
67.99 
70.29 
71-56 
70.03 
76.16 
70.01 



Original. 



Per- 
cent. 

13-13 
15.12 
19-58 
15.06 
I4-3S 
l6.«5 
13.61 
1S.S7 



15-S2 



Per- 
cent. 
0.77 
1.09 
-56 
1.05 
-73 
•54 
1. 10 
1. 00 



.86 



Per- 
cent. 
4-31 
4-45 
4-49 
6.23 
6.61 
5.01 
4.22 
4.0S 



4-93 



Air-dry. 



Per- 
cent. 
6.79 
6.67 
7.24 
6.24 
6.88 
7.90 
7-37 
7-57 



Per- 
cent. 
49-65 
51 
56. 



51.84 



Per- 
cent. 
2-93 
3-67 
1.61 

3-31 
2.40 
1.67 
4.29 
3-07 



2.87 



Per- 
cent. 
16.31 
15.04 
13.02 
19.67 
21.63 
15-40 
16.40 
12.59 



16.26 



Water-free. 



Per- 
cent. 

53-27 
54-71 
61.18 
50.68 

50.45 
56-22 
57-10 
62.93 



55-82 



Per- 
cent. 

3-14 
3-93 
1.74 
3-53 
2.58 
1.81 
4-63 
3-32 



Per- 
cent. 
17-50 
16. II 
14.04 
20.98 

13-23 
16.72 
17-70 
13-62 



3.09 16.16 



Second Lot (January 7). 



Name of Variety. 



Georgia Buck . 
Bunch Yam . . 
Do ... . 
Horton Yam . 
Georgia Buck . 
Vineless Yam . 
HanoverYam . 
Georgia Yam . 

Average 



Original. 



Per- 
cent. 

69.74 

67-31 
67.29 

71-39 
67.63 

67-33 
70.13 
71.78 



Pev- 
ce7it. 
12.72 
13.66 
13-83 
9-57 
14.43 
12.03 
14-13 
II. 21 



69.08 I 12.70 2.21 



C 3 



Per- 
cent. 

1-75 
2.02 
2.40 
2-57 
2.12 
2.90 
1.66 
2.26 



Per- 
cent. 
9-25 
9.90 

9-43 
9.69 
7-S5 
10.09 
6.58 
8.10 



;.86 



Air-dry. 



Per- 
cent. 

S.So 
9-49 
10.00 
7.18 
8.46 
7.90 
9.29 
8.62 



8.72 



Per- 
cent. 

38.34 
37.83 
38.04 

31-05 
40.80 
33-90 
42.90 
36.30 



37-40 



Per- 
cent. 
5-27 
5-60 
6.61 

8-35 
6.00 
8.19 
5-05 
7-31 



Per- 
cent. 
27-87 
27-40 
25-94 
31-43 
22.21 
28.44 
19.99 
26.24 



6.55 26.19 40-99 



Water-free. 



Per- 
cent. 

42.04 

41 " 

42 

33 

44 

36. 

47 

39 



Per- 
cent. 

5-7S 
6.19 
7-34 
9.00 

6.,55 
8.89 

5-57 
8.00 



7.17 



Per- 
cent. 
30-56 
30-27 
28.82 
35-86 
24.26 
30.88 
22.04 
28.72 



28.68 



Effect of Storage on Composition. — Experiments have shown that the quan- 
tity of starch diminishes and the quantity of sugar increases on storing. 
* South Carolina Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 63, p. 25. 



SWEET POTATO. 



303 



Further, it may be stated that in the varieties of sweet potatoes which are 
jnost esteemed for table use there is less starch and perhaps more sugar than 
are stated in the above examples. In one instance of an analysis made on 
the 7th of January of stored potatoes, the starch had fallen to a little less than 
13 percent, while the sugars had increased to over 11 percent in less than six 
weeks. The total quantity of fermentable matter, however, as will be seen, 
had not been greatly changed, although there was probaljly a slight loss. In 
the southern agricultural work referred to, the yam and the sweet potato are 
considered together. The composition and the changes on keeping are well 
illustrated by the preceding data. 

The above data apparently are sufficient to show the high value which 
attaches to the sweet potato and the yam, not only as edibles, but especially 
for the purpose of making alcohol. It is also seen that the sweet potato 
would not be a valuable material for making starch alone, because in 
starch making the sugar which the sweet potato contains is lost, whereas in 
the manufacture of alcohol the sugar and the starch, as well as any fer- 
mentable celluloses or gums in the potato, are utilized. The following 
table shows the extent to which this crop is grown in the United States: 



Acreage and Production of Sweet Potatoes (Includijjg Yams) in the United 
States by States, in 1899, as Reported by the Twelfth Census. 



States. 



United States 



Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California . . 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Hawaii 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian Territory . . 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Massachusetts . . . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 



Acres. 



537,447 



865 



2,265 

5 

22.791 

70,620 

135 

6 

7,534 

3,989 

1,064 



Bushels. 



42,526,696 



3,457,386 

4.299 

998.767 

239.029 

2,2gi 

130 

222,165 

19,936 

2,049,784 

5,087,674 

9,284 

413 

511,695 

239,487 

80,364 

24,622 

74,810 

925,786 

1,865,482 

677,848 

23 

3,242 

136 



States. 


Acres. 


Bushels. 


Mississippi 

Missouri . .... 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio . . 

Oklahoma 

Oregon . . 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 


38,169 

9-844 

551 

5 

I 

20,588 

47 

73 

68,730 

' 3-796 
2,512 

27 

3.443 

I 

48,831 

3 

23,374 

43,561 

40 

4 

40,681 

52 

3,393 

4 


2,817.386 
743,377 
48,224 

^1 

2,418,641 

6,180 

8,681 

5,781,587 

I 

249,767 

195,799 
2,825 

234,724 
102 

3,369,957 

105 

1,571,575 

3,299,135 

4,958 

306 

4,470,602 

4-672 

202,424 

86 


Utah 




Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 



Average Composition of Sweet Potatoes. — The mean composition of varieties 
of sweet potatoes as determined by the California and Texas Experiment 
stations is shown in the following data: 



304 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

California Station Texas Station 

(17 varieties). (21 varieties). 

Water, 69.00 percent 70.27 percent 



Ash, 1 . 1 5 

Protein, 2.08 

Fat, 1 .00 

Total sugars, 5.55 

Starch, etc., 24.23 

Crude fiber, 2.62 



1. 14 

2.41 

O.Q9 

6.81 

24.00 
1.26 



Included in the starch of the above data are the substances soluble in boil- 
ing dilute acid and alkali. 

Turnip. — The botanical name of the turnip is Brassica napus L. The 
French name is navet; German, Herbst-Riibe; Italian, navone; Spanish, 
nabo. 

The turnip is grown very largely in the United States both as a vegetable and 
as a field crop for feeding purposes. The turnip used as a vegetable usually 
has a spherical bulb. It is a crop that grows late in the autumn. In the cen- 
tral part of the country it is usually sown as a field crop after the harvesting of 
some of the early crops as, for instance, early potatoes, and is ready for har- 
vest late in the autumn, just before freezing weather begins. Grown as a 
vegetable, however, it is grown early as well as late. It has a spicy, pun- 
gent taste which makes it extremely palatable. It is sometimes eaten raw, 
but generally stewed. 

Composition. — 

Water, 90.46 percent 

Ash, 80 

Protein, 1.14 

Fiber, 1.15 

Sugar, starch, etc., 6.27 

Fat, 18 

The above data show that the turnip is not a very nutritious vegetable and 
that its chief nutrients are carbohydrates. 

Yam. — Another variety of edible root or substance belonging to the sweet 
potato class is known as the yam. It is also, like the sweet potato, particu- 
larly suited to growing in the subtropical or warm climates. The name 
yam properly belongs to a tropical root similar in appearance to the sweet 
potato but produced by various species of vines of the genus Dioscorea, not 
belonging even to the same family as the sweet potato. In the southern 
United States, however, the name yam is applied to certain varieties of the 
sweet potato with large coarse stems. It is cultivated extensively in the 
southern part of the United States, and is valued both as a food for man and 
specially for domesticated animals. The character of the soil, method of 
planting, and cultivation are the same as in the case of the sweet potato. 
It is particularly valued for fattening the variety of swine so common in the 
South, known as the "razor-back" hog. This animal does his own harvest- 



CANNED VEGETABLES. 305 

ing, and thus takes away from the agriculturist a portion of his labor which is 
not of the most agreeable kind. 

Composition of Yams. — The composition of yams does not differ to any 
notable extent from that of the sweet potato. 

Other Uses oj the Yam and Sweet Potato. — In addition to the use of the yam 
and sweet potato for human food, reference has already been made to their 
value as food for domesticated animals. These bodies are particularly relished 
by hogs and cattle. The feeding of sweet potatoes or yams to milk cows 
insures a healthy condition of the body, and also imparts to the milk, cream, 
and butter the distinct amber tint which is regarded as a mark of excellence. 
Thus even in the winter months the butter which is made from milk produced 
in this way will have the light amber tint, which should distinguish it from 
the highly tinted artificially colored product which does so much to bring good 
butter into bad repute. Both sweet potatoes and yams are capable of yield- 
ing abundant supplies of distilled spirits. It is probable that under the new 
law which permits the use of denatured alcohol free of taxation in the arts an 
abundant supply of this product can be secured from the sweet potato and 
the yam. There are millions of acres of cheap land of a sandy character 
in the South Atlantic and Gulf states where potatoes and yams can be suc- 
cessfully grown under scientific principles of agriculture. If not needed 
for food purposes as above mentioned, the residue can be very profitably 
devoted to the manufacture of industrial alcohol. 

Canned Vegetables. 
It probably will excite no opposition to state that if fresh, succulent 
vegetables can be placed upon the table of the consumer they are to be preferred 
to the same kind of vegetables preserved in any manner. There are many 
circumstances, however, which render it diflicult, if not impossible, to secure a 
regular supply of fresh, succulent vegetables upon the consumer's table. Those 
who possess abundant wealth may have a proper supply of vegetables at all 
seasons of the year without resorting to any preserving process other than the 
refrigeration incident to transportation. But the great majority of con- 
sumers must of necessity adapt themselves to the conditions of the market and 
the proximity of supply. Succulent vegetables properly harvested and re- 
frigerated may be sent long distances, invoh'ing a considerable period of time, 
and reach the consumer in practically the same state of freshness and 
palatability as when first harvested. Owing to the exigencies of intermediary 
supply and the cost of transportation the great industry of keeping succulent 
vegetables by sterilization has been founded. Commonly vegetables prepared 
in this way are known as "canned" vegetables in this country and "tinned" in 
England. By availing himself of this process the consumer, even of moderate 



3o6 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

means, is able to command at all seasons of the year and in all locations an 
abundant supply of wholesome, fresh, succulent vegetable materials. 

Principles and Process of Canning. — The sterilization of succulent vege- 
tables depends upon the same principles as that of meat, already described. 
The decay of these vegetable substances is due to the action of certain fer- 
ments, either organic or inorganic, which act as agents in effecting the oxidation 
and decay of the organic material. If the action of these organisms can be 
prevented or inhibited the food material will remain for a certain length of time, 
not yet definitely determined, in an excellent, almost perfect state of pres- 
ervation and without losing, notably, any of its nutritive or palatable properties. 

It is not the purpose of this manual to describe the technique of canning, 
further than to illustrate the principles thereof in their relations to wholesome 
and nutritive food. 

Selection of Materials. — It is of the highest importance in the canning in- 
dustrv, both for the reputation of the manufacturer and the health and com- 
fort of the consumer, that the vegetables selected for canning be fresh, free from 
disease, and prepared in such a way that all adhering dirt or other foreign sub- 
stances be excluded. The process of preparation for canning should begin as 
soon as possible after the harvesting of the vegetables, since a delay, especially 
at the high temperature which usually prevails at the time of canning, 
produces rapid deterioration, both as respects the quality of the vegetable and 
its flavor. After the proper cleaning and preparation of the fresh vegetables 
they are next subjected to the process of canning. It is then the vegetables are 
heated to a temperature of, or above, that of boiling water for a sufficient length 
of time to thoroughly destroy all the living germs and spores contained there- 
in. The degree of temperature and the length of time of heating depend upon 
the nature of the vegetable substance, the size of its particles and of the package 
and the relative difficulty of preservation. Where only living organisms are 
present the proper temperature is that which will destroy the life of the germ. 
It is well known that spores from which fermentative germs may be developed 
are more resistant to the action of heat than the germ itself. When, therefore, 
spores of this kind are present, the temperature of heating must be higher and 
the time more prolonged, or, in lieu of this, the food shovild be heated on two or 
three consecutive days during which time any spores which may have been 
present will have developed into organisms and been killed. Some forms of 
vegetable materials are sterilized much more readily than others. For instance, 
the kernels of green Indian corn are of such a character and degree of hardness 
as to resist, with a considerable degree of success, the influence of heat on the 
life of the germs which they contain. In such cases it is customary to pre- 
viously cook the vegetable substance before placing it in the cans. The cans 
should contain enough water to fill the interstices between the particles of 
vegetable matter. It is the practice in many instances to add a little salt and 



COMPOSITION OF TYPICAL SAMPLES OF CANNED BEANS. 



307 



sometimes also sugar to this liquid. When the can is filled and closed the 
sterilizing is best completed by placing it in a strong boiler, which is then closed 
and heated by steam under a pressure of two or three atmospheres or even 
higher, namely, from 30 to 45 pounds and over per square inch. By heating 
under pressure in this way the development of any pressure in the can due to the 
])roduction of steam is counterbalanced by the pressure without the can, so that 
a swelling or cracking of the can cannot take place. If the cans are heated in 
an open bath of water or brine it is customary to leave a small perforation in the 
top of the can through which the combined gas of the interior of the can may 
escape, and this vent is closed by a small drop of solder applied before or at the 
time of taking the cans from the bath. The canning of vegetables may also be 
done in a small way in the household and the principle on which this process is 
based is exactly the same as that set forth. The vegetables must be properly 
prepared, placed in the cans, and heated a sufficient length of time to destroy 
germs and spores, and the vent in the can stopped with solder. For famil}- pur- 
poses the use of closed boilers for heating is not practical on account of the ex- 
pense of securing such apparatus. All kinds of vegetables which are eaten in a 
cooked state can be preserved ijy the canning process. This cannot be applied, 
however, to those forms of vegetables which are eaten raw, such as lettuce, 
radishes, etc. 

The j)rincipal forms of canned vegetables are described below: 
Canned Beans. — Fresh, green beans used for canning purposes are generally 
preserved in the pod and not shelled, as is the case with the pea. The raw material 
should be selected with the same care as that which attends the selection of 
other vegetable products intended for preserving purposes. If the pods are 
small they may be placed whole in the can. Sometimes they are cut into 
small lengths in order to fit better in the package. As in the case of peas, 
the interstices between the particles of beans are filled by the addition of a 
sufficient quantity of brine of the proper strength to fill the can to the top. 
The process of sterilization is the same as that for other vegetable substances. 
Cooked beans are also preserved by canning and are often improperly called 
baked beans. 

Composition of Typical Samples of Canned Beans. — The composition 
of typical samples of canned beans is shown in the following table: 



Substance. 



Water. 



String beans , 

Unstringed beans,. . . 

Lima beans, 

Canned baked beans, 



Per- 
cent. 

94-33 
93-91 
79.68 
67.19 



Fat. 



Per- 
cent. 
.06 

.07 

•30 
3.18 



Fiber. 



Per- 
cent. 

-SI 

■58 

1. 16 

2.46 



Starch 




AND 


Protein. 


Sugar. 




Per- 


Per- 


cent. 


cent. 


3-03 


.92 


2.91 


1. 14 


13-24 


4.00 


17.88 


7.14 



Per- 
cent . 
1. 16 
1.40 
1.62 
2-lS 



Salt. 



Per- 
cent. 
.80 
.92 

•77 
1.03 



3o8 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



As in the case of peas it is noticed that the beans in the hull are not a par- 
ticularly nutritious vegetable in proportion to the quantity consumed and that 
the protein is the most valuable constituent in the dry matter. 

Adidteratlon 0} Canned Beans. — The same adulterations may be found in 
canned beans as in canned peas. No additional remarks, therefore, are 
needed on this point. 

Both canned peas and beans form condimental, palatable, wholesome, and 
desirable forms of these leguminous vegetables. The great cheapness with 
which they can be grown and the improved method of canning make it 
possible to produce these articles of food in quantities, and for a price which 
bring them within the reach of those even in the most humble circumstances. 




Fig. 44. — ViKW of Indian Corn Canning Factory, Showing Accumulation of Husks and Cobs. 



As soon as the manufacturer restores absolute confidence in the purity 
of his products by completely excluding all adulterations the trade in these 
articles will be greatly increased and immensely greater quantities thereof 
consumed. 

Canned Indian Corn. — In the United States a dish which is very ex- 
tensively consumed throughout all ])arts of the country is one almost unknown 
in Europe, namely, succulent Indian corn. In the growth of Indian corn, 
at the period when the starch is formed in the grain and before it becomes set 
or hard, the immature grains make a palatable and excellent food product. In 
the appropriate season this delicious vegetable substance is eaten principally 
on the cob. A variety of Indian corn,which has already been described, namely, 



CANNED INDIAN CORN. 309 

sweet corn, is the one chiefly used for edible purposes in this immature state. 
The Indian corn canning industry is a most extensive one in this country. 
The estimate of the number of cans of Indian corn produced during the year 
ended Dec. 31, 1905, is 13,939,683 cases of 24 cans each. 

The principal centers of the industry are found in the New England 
States, especially in Maine, New Jersey, Maryland, New York, Ohio, Iowa> 
Illinois, and Indiana. By planting different varieties of Indian corn which 
mature at different ages and extending the planting season over a long period^ 
the canning season, for instance, in Maryland, may be continued from the last 
of July to the advent of killing frost, usually the middle or last of October, 

Technique of the Process. — The ears of sweet Indian corn are plucked from , 
the stalk together with the husks, and brought in wagons in this condition to the 
factorv. The husks are removed by hand or machinery and the ears passed 
through machinery by means of which, owing to the operation of knives, the 
grains are removed from the cob as evenly as possible. Care is taken not to 
cut too close to the cob so as to avoid mingling any of its particles with the corn. 
The separated grains are put into cans, treated with a sufficient quantity of 
water to fill the interstices, soldered, and subjected to sterilization. Nearly 
all of these operations are conducted by machinery. The sterilization is often 
effected by placing the cans upon an endless conveyer dipping into water or 
brine of the proper temperature and moving slowly through this bath at a pace 
determined by the length and temperature thereof, so that upon emerging the 
sterilization is complete. The cans may also be heated in closed vessels as 
already described. A typical view of a factory employed in the canning of 
Indian corn is given in the accompanying illustration. Fig. 44. 

Composition of Canned Indian Corn. — The composition of canned Indian, 
corn varies so greatly that it is only possible to give analyses of a somewhat 
general character, without attempting to express the extremes of composition 
which may be found. The immature Indian corn differs from the dry mature 
variety principally in the following respects: There is usually more sugar, as 
compared with the same amount of dry substance, and less starch and protein 
than in the matured variety. In fact, the constituent which is of chief value 
in the green Indian corn is the natural sugar which it contains. This natural 
sweetening cannot be imitated by the addition of sugar although the mixture 
may be made very sweet by this method. There is a delicacy of flavor and a 
peculiar palatability in the natural sweetness of Indian corn which must 
necessarily be due to the form of combination with other natural ingredients in 
which the sugar is found, and not solely to the sugar itself, which is practically- 
ordinary sugar, sucrose, or its inverted product. While there is less starch in 
the immature kernel of Indian corn the starch is in a different physical 
state. In other words, it has not become solidified into aggregates of solid 
particles. The starch in this form also appears to be more palatable, and 



3IO VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, ERUITS. 

perhaps somewhat more digestible, than in its aggregate and soHdified condi- 
tion. As a nutrient the green corn is not so valuable by any means as its 
equal weight when dry. The percentage of water in green corn is many times 
as great as in the dry variet}'. For mere nutritive purposes, therefore, it 
would not be worth while to go to the trouble of canning green Indian corn. 
Its value is that which is attached to a succulent fresh vegetable, that is, it is 
condimental and hygienic as well as nutritive. 

The mean analysis of many samples of canned sweet Indian corn is given 
belo^^• : 

Water, 75. 50 percent 

Dry matter, 24.50 " 

Oil and fat, 1.26 

Cellulose, 79 " 

Ash, 93 

Salt, 23 

Protein, 3.51 " 

Sugar and starch, 17-5^ " 

These data were obtained on samples bought in the open market, some of 
which had been artificially sweetened and to some of which starch had probably 
been added. The analysis of the fresh green corn is given on page 227. 

Adulteration oj Canned Corn. — Unfortunately many adulterations have been 
practiced in connection with the canning of Indian corn which, while not exten- 
sive or applicable to the great mass of material, have cast an unjust suspicion 
on the unadulterated product. The trade in this canned product would be 
vastly increased if the consumer could be assured that all forms of adulteration 
had been eliminated from the industry. The principal adulterants used are 
mentioned on page 228, but the following additional statements are perti- 
nent: 

Adulteration with Starch. — In order to make a more creamy liciuid in the can 
the addition of starch has been largely practiced. There are two objections to 
the addition of starch to canned corn. In the first place it unbalances the 
ration and makes it more or less unwholesome. Starch itself is an unbal- 
anced food product, but Nature has so distributed the starches in various 
foods as to present them in the most favorable form for digestion and as- 
similation, and when this natural balance' is disturbed by artificial means the 
result is more or less injurious to the organs of digestion. There are many 
persons to whom starchy foods are not nutritious nor easily digested, and when 
persons of .this kind consume canned Indian corn to which starch has been 
added their health may be injured. The addition of starch, therefore, is 
reprehensible for hygienic reasons. In the second place it is objectionable 
because it is deceptive, since the canned product has a richer and better ap- 
pearance to the eye by this addition than it otherwise would have, and because 
more water can be used in the can. 



CANNED INDIAN CORN. 31X 

Adulteration with Sugar. — It seems strange to speak of adulterating with 
sugar, and yet the addition of sugar without notice to canned Indian corn may 
become an aduUeration. It has already been mentioned that the nature of 
Indian corn for canning purposes depends very largely upon its natural sugar 
content, and when corn of the proper sweet variety is selected the addition of 
other sweetening material is unnecessary. The use of sugar, therefore, in con- 
nection with canned Indian corn serves to cover up the defects of a corn whose 
natural sweetness is l^elow the standard and thus the consumer is deceived. 
In addition to this, attention is also called to the fact already stated that no 
artificial sweetening, even with sugar, can produce that delicate and desired 
saccharine equality which the natural sweet corn possesses. The addition 
of sugar, therefore, to canned Indian corn without the notice thereof being 
plainly stated on the label is not to be encouraged. 

Addition of Saccharin. — The use of benzoic sulfinid, or, as it is com- 
monly known, saccharin, to canned corn unhappilv is tt)o often practiced. 
This body, which has no relation chemicalh' or hygienically to sugar, which is 
not a food, which is wholly indigestible, and which the majority of experts re- 
gard as harmful to health, should never be placed in canned Indian corn, 
even if its use is stated upon the lal)el. It produces an intense, but not agree- 
able, sweet taste and yet one which the unwary consumer would naturally 
attribute to the sugar present in the corn itself. Thus the ccmsumer is de- 
ceived, and at the same time he is consuming a drug which has valuable uses 
in medicine but which should onlv be administered with the consent and by 
the advice of a physician. It is believed that under the scrutiny of municipal, 
state, and national inspection the use of saccharin in food products will 
disappear. Moreover, the name saccharin itself is misleading. It is an 
application of a word which by common usage is attributed to natural sugir 
substances to a substance which has no relation of any kind to sugar. The 
use of a word of this kind is evidently objectionable. The canner himself 
Vi^ho uses this product often buys it under another name, which gives no indi- 
cation of its true character. 

Character of the Cans. — It is important that the containers in which canned 
vegetables are preserved should be of a character to yield no poisonous or 
injurious substance to the contents therein. What is said here in respect of 
canned Indian corn is generally applicable to canned products of all descrip- 
tions. 

The approved standards for food products in the United States require the 
following properties for the containers: 

"I. Suitable containers for keeping moist food products such as sirups, 
honey, condensed milk, soups, meat extracts, meats, manufactured meats, 
and undried fruits and vegetables and wrappers in contact with food products 
contain on their surfaces, in contact with the food products, no lead, antimony. 



312 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

arsenic, zinc, or copper or any compounds thereof or any other poisonous or 
injurious substance. If tlie containers are made of tin plate they are outside 
soldered and the plate in no case contains less than one hundred and thirteen 
(113) milligrams of tin on a piece five (5) centimeters square or one and eight- 
tenths (1.8) grains on a piece two (2) inches square. The inner coating of 
the containers is free from pin-holes, blisters, and cracks. 

" If the tin plate is lacquered, the lacquer completely covers the tinned 
surface within the container and yields to the contents of the container no 
lead, antimony, arsenic, zinc, copper, tin, or any compounds thereof." 

Souring and Swelling of Canned Corn. — In all cases where sterilization 
is not complete, or where spores remain undestroyed which afterward develop 
and produce various kinds of ferments, the canned corn spoils. The contents 
usually become sour and acquire a bad taste, and, in many cases, on puncturing 
the container gas escapes. The pressure of this gas in the can is sometimes 
great enough to produce a swelling, and hence the technical term "swelled" 
applied to cans of this kind. Various forms of ferments are active in pro- 
ducing these conditions. The common alcoholic ferment does not usually oc- 
cur by reason of the fact that the yeasts which produce this form of fermentation 
are readily destroyed in the sterilizing process. Ferments which produce 
lactic, butyric, and other acids, and those which act upon the nitrogenous 
matter and tend to form various decomposition products are the most 
common. 

In the case of canned corn and other canned vegetables the nitrogenous 
lecomposed products are not usually very poisonous. On the other hand 
in the case of meat, and especially of fish and crustaceans, the degradation 
products from the nitrogen constituents of the food become poisonous and 
ire known collectively under the name of ptomains. 

If the sterihzation has not been complete at the time of preparation, sweet 
corn, as well as other foodstuffs in similar circumstances, undergoes a kind 
of fermentation which renders it unfit for food. The fermentation is usu- 
ally due to the greater vitahty of spores and fungi, the real bacteria usually 
succumbing to the heat of preparation. Various gases beside carbon dioxid 
are produced, causing the corn to swell. All swelled goods should be 
rejected for food purposes. 

Canned Peas and Beans. — These leguminous products lend themselves 
readily to canning purposes, and are preserved in great quantities m the 
United States in this way. Peas are always shelled before canning, and are 
harvested at a time to secure their greatest succulence. If the peas be too 
ripe they make a hard, unpalatable berry which detracts from the value cf 
the canned product. The smaller variety of pea is preferred to the larger 
for canning, but, irrespective of size, they should be fresh, succulent, and not 
too mature. In the large canning factories the peas are harvested with 
machines such as are used for the cereals. The harvested material is passed 



CANNED PEAS AND BEANS. 3I3 

through a shelling machine, by means of which the pods are opened and the 
peas separated. The rest of the pods, stalks, leaves, etc., are very valuable 
for cattle food or fertilizing purposes. Peas, before canning, should be separ- 
ated into different sizes so that all those entering one can may be as nearly uni- 
form in size as possible. This separation not only makes the contents of 
the can appear more attractive but also renders the sterilization more certain 
and easy. If large and small peas are put in the same can the heat of sterili- 
zation must be high enough and continue long encnigh to sterilize completely 
the large peas, and this might induce an over-cooking and impair the edible 
properties of the small ones. 

The technique of the canning process is not at all different except in the 
preparation of the material, as described above, from that of other vegetable 
canning factories. 

Composition oj Canned Peas. — The composition of typical varieties of 
canned peas compiled from a large number of analyses is shown in the 
following table: 

Water, 85.47 percent 

Fat, 21 

Fiber, i . 1 8 

Protein, 3.57 

Starch and sugar, 7.79 

Ash, 1 . 1 1 

Salt, 67 

From the above data it is seen that the canned pea does not ha\'e a high 
nutritive value, considering its bulk. In the canned pea one of the prin- 
cipal food elements in the wet material is the protein which it contains, 
both the pea and the bean being very rich in this important food material. 

Adulteration of Canned Peas. — The principal form of adulteration which 
is practiced in the canning of peas is the addition of sulfate of copper for the 
purpose of producing an intense green color. The delicate shade of green 
of the fresh, succulent pea tends to assume a yellowish tint on canning, and 
especially after keeping for some time. To such an extent does this oxidation 
of the natural chlorophyl go on that in many samples when opened, instead 
of a green, we discover a decidedly yellowish tint. \\'hen a copper salt, such 
as sulfate, is heated in contact with a nitrogenous substance, such as that 
which exists in the pea, a chemical combination is formed between the cop- 
per and nitrogenous bodies which has an intensely green tint. 

It is often supposed that the sulfate of copper is added to canned peas 
to preserve their natural color. This, however, is not the case. The copper 
combination, as above mentioned, produces a dye of a very bright green hue. 
Sulfate of copper is a highly poisonous substance, and for this reason should 
be excluded from food products. It is only fair to state that those who use 
this material claim that in the form of the combination produced it remains 



314 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

insoluble during the process of digestion, and therefore the copper is inert. 
This claim is not sustained by the facts in the case. It is quite certain that 
the copper product forming the dye or the e.xcess of the copper which is used 
remains in a state of very unstable composition which is easily broken up 
under the action of the acids and enzymes in the digestive organs. 

It is greatly to the credit of the canners of the United States that the use 
of sulfate of copper has never come into use in this country. 

Tests for Copper. — Fortunately the ])resence of copper in canned peas is 
easily ascertained even by the novice. If a portion of the peas be rubbed 
in a mortar to a fine paste and mixed with water acidulated with two or three 
drops of hydrochloric acid, a paste will be formed which on boiling will de- 
posit copper on a clean metallic substance such as silver, steel, or iron. If a 
bright steel knife or a clean iron nail be placed in this paste, the surface will soon 
be covered with metallic copper. This simple test shows that the copper is 
not combined in any such permanent form as is claimed. 

Saccharin. — The use of saccharin as an imitation of the natural sweet 
of the pea is, unfortunately, very largely practiced and is open to the same 
objections as were pointed out in the case of Indian corn. The use of sugar, 
salt, and other condimental substances in canned peas cannot be regarded 
as an adulteration unless deception results therefrom. It is claimed there is no 
special variety of pea distinguished by its content of sugar, and therefore the 
addition of sugar does not cause one variety of pea to imitate the properties of 
another. If this be true no deception is practiced, and, if the sugar is pure, no 
injury is done. In all cases of this kind, perhaps, it would be better if the 
manufacturer would plainly mark on the label the name of the added materials. 
Then there could be no question of the nature of the product. 

Canned Tomatoes. — Next, perhaps, in importance to the industry of 
canned corn, is the preservation of tomatoes. Immense quantities of these 
goods are produced annually in the United States. The technique of the 
canning process is not at all different from that of canned corn. By reason 
of the pulpy condition of the material and its freedom from hard and impene- 
trable matter in the preparation for canning, the sterilization is accomplished 
in less time and with greater certainty than in the case of Indian corn. 

Preparation of the Raw Material. — Only fresh, ripe, mature, and sound 
tomatoes should be used in the preparation of the canned goods. These 
are delivered by the farmer or contractor in baskets or otherwise to the factory. 
After sorting and rejecting all those that are unfit, the portions selected for 
preservation are treated in the usual manner to secure sterilization. 

The skins, cores, and rejected portions of the tomatoes should be removed 
to a sufficient distance from the factory to prevent any bad odor or danger 
of infection. 



CANNED TOMATOES. 315 

Composition of Canned Tomatoes. — The chemical composition of canned 
tomatoes is shown in the following analysis: 

Water, 03-50 Jiercent 

Fat, 23 " 

Fiber, 60 " 

Starch and sugar, 3.4^ " 

Protein, 1.29 " 

Ash, 66 

Sah, 14 

From the above data it is seen that the tomato is not particularly valuable 
on account of its nutrient properties. It consists chiefly of water, and its 
value as a food product is principally condimental. It must not be denied, 
however, that it has that peculiar value which is possessed by all edible suc- 
culent vegetables and fruits, namely, it is a means of keeping the digestive 
processes in good form, preventing constipation, and promoting the general 
metabolic activity. In this sense it is seen that it is more than condimental. 
It also, of course, has a distinct food value, due chiefly to the carbohydrates 
it contains. 

Addition of Sugar and Spices. — Sugar and other condimental substances 
are often used in the preparation of tomatoes. In this case it is doubtful 
whether the addition of pure sugar can be regarded in any sense as an adul- 
teration if properly stated on the label. It is claimed that there is no dis- 
tinction in the classification of tomatoes based upon their sugar content. If 
there were a variety of distinctly sweet tomato as distinguished from the or- 
dinary field crop, then the addition of sugar to the field crop to imitate the 
sweet of the naturally sweet article would be an aduheration. But even in this 
case unripe or imperfect tomatoes may be used and sugar added to conceal 
inferiority. The use of common condimental substances, such as salt, spices, 
vinegar, etc., in the preparation of various products of tomatoes must be re- 
garded as a perfectly legitimate operation. 

Adulteration of Canned Tomatoes. — Fortunately there are few adulterations 
practiced in the case of canned tomatoes. The use of antiseptics to insure 
the conservation of the contents of the can was formerly practiced to some 
extent, salicylic and benzoic acids being the chief antiseptics employed. 
Since it has been made possible to easil}-, speedily, and economically sterilize 
the contents of the cans, the use of antiseptics is practically a thing of the past. 
The most common adulteration of tomatoes, perhaps, has been artificial color- 
ing. The use of artificial coloring is resorted to solely for deceptive pur- 
poses. Where green or immature tomatoes are used, or other portions and 
parts of such fruits as are not suitable for the production of the highest 
grade products, the naturally red color of the tomato is imitated artificially, 
usually by the addition of cochineal or a coal tar dye. The use of artificial 
color in canned tomatoes has almost ceased in this country. 



3l6 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

Saccharin is also sometimes used as an adulterant to imitate the proper- 
ties of pure sugar. 

It has already been intimated that green or unfit tomatoes or the residue 
of better grades are sometimes prepared and sold as the real article. This 
is a form of adulteration which is most reprehensible. Unfortunately, except 
in so far as the artificial color is concerned, this adulteration is not readily 
revealed by either chemical or microscopic examination, although the latter 
is exceedingly valuable in detecting certain forms of this kind of material. 
Only by a rigid inspection of the factories can this form of adulteration be 
excluded with certainty. The use of such immature fruits or scraps without 
notice to the consumer is, without doubt, an adulteration of an exceedingly 
bad type. If there be a desire to make a very cheap grade of the product 
out of these materials the nature of them should be plainly stated upon the 
label and then, perhaps, there would be a valid excuse for their appearance 
on the market. 

Other Canned Vegetables. — There is no necessity to enter into the detail 
of the preparation of other canned vegetables further than to say that practi- 
cally all vegetables which are offered on the market, except those which are 
necessarily eaten in a raw state, are preserved or can be preserved by the 
sterilizing process. 

Tomato Ketchup. — A sauce which is used in large quantities in the United 
States and in other countries is known as tomato ketchup and is manufac- 
tured in many parts of the country. Tomato ketchup is the pulp of sound, 
ripe tomatoes mixed with various condimental substances and flavoring 
matters to make it palatable and desirable as a sauce. The character of 
flavor and condimental substances employed is left to the judgment of the 
manufacturer and the taste of the consumer, provided the materials are 
wholesome and sanitary. It has been claimed by some manufacturers that 
it is impracticable to place this desirable product upon the market without 
the use of chemical antiseptics. They admit, as in the case of the manu- 
facture of fruit sirups, that tomato ketchup can be sterilized and kept properly 
until the bottle is opened for consumption; but, inasmuch as it is used in 
small quantities and a bottle of it lasts for many days, it cannot be kept in a 
proper state except by the use of such preservatives. The principal antisep- 
tics which are used in connection with tomato ketchup are salicylic and 
benzoic acids. 

Experience has shown that these claims are not of sufficient value to war- 
rant the exception of tomato ketchup from the ordinary regulations respect- 
ing pure food. The habit of leaving a tomato ketchup bottle upon the table 
where the material adheres to the rim and becomes hardened to a gummy 
paste, serving as a pabulum for flies, does not appeal with any great force to 
the aesthetic sense relative to dining rooms. A ketchup bottle carefully 



EDIBLE STARCHES. 317 

opened and used in such a way as to avoid infection and then returned to the 
ice box can be Ivept for many days without danger of fermentation. 

Artificial Colors. — Tomato ketchup is sometimes subjected to artificial 
coloring. This is done to imitate the color of the best raw material. If 
red, ripe, sound tomatoes are used no artificial color is necessary. 

Use of Refuse for Making Ketchup. — It has been stated that the unripe, imper- 
fect tomatoes at the time of harvesting are cooked in large quantities and treated 
with benzoic acid and stored in large containers until the canning season is 
over, after which this material is made into ketchup and artificially colored. 
Further statements have also been made to the effect that the skins, cores, 
and refuse of the cannery have been treated in the same way as indicated 
below. The proper inspection of the factories would exclude from the 
preparation of ketchup unfit material of the kind mentioned. It is doubt- 
less true that when the people are finally convinced that the ketchup which is 
used is made of the best material and contains no artificial color or no harmful 
antiseptic, its use will be immensely increased. 

A manufacturer of ketchup recently made the following statement respect- 
ing the utilization of the refuse matter at the cannery : 

"We use in our standard catsup the peelings and small tomatoes. We 
preserve the pulp with four ounces of sodium benzoate to each 50 gallon barrel, 
cooked and whipped through a cyclone pulp machine. It takes two barrels 
of this stock to produce 60 gallons of catsup, and we use eight ounces more of 
sodium benzoate to preserve it." 

If waste material of this kind is sound and wholesome, there can be no 
valid objection to its use if the product be preserved by sterilization alone, 
and offered for sale under its proper designation. 

STARCHES USED AS FOODS. 

Edible Starches. — Attention has already been called to the fact that starch 
is the principal constituent of many of the common foods, such as cereals 
and the different varieties of the potato and other vegetables. Starch is often 
separated from the part of the plant producing it, and is then largely consumed 
as food in practically a pure state. Starches used in this way are presented 
in the form of pudding or desserts of some kind, and are often richly spiced, 
highly sweetened, and often eaten with cream. Starch also appears in the 
market under other names such as tapioca, arrowroot, etc. 

Arrowroot. — The plant which furnishes the substance known as arrow- 
root belongs to the natural family Cannacea^ and is principally native of 
tropical regions. The most important source of the arrowroot of commerce 
is the Canna indica. The starch of this plant exhibits in a strong degree 
certain characteristic qualities of starches derived from this natural family. 
The hilum in this starch is round and in some varieties double. The ap- 



3l8 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

pearance of this starch under the n;icroscope is shown in Fig. 45. The product 
of commerce is obtained from the rhizome and tubers. 

Bermuda Arrowroot. — The Bermuda arrowroot is obtained principally from 
the Maranta aritndinacea. This arrowroot is also produced very largely 
in St. Vincent and other West Indian localities. The granules of the starch 
are very much smaller than in the two species just described. The hilum 
is prominent, and frequently takes the shape of a well defined slit instead of 
the usual round spot. These arrowroots and those of South African origin 
are very extensi\ely used for invalid foods where starchy foods are indicated, 



^A^, 




cO ^ 

Fig. 45. — Maranta (Arrowroot) Starch (X 200). — {Courtesy Bureau of Chemistry.) 



which, however, is not very often the case. These starches form a firm and 
semitranslucent jelly-like body when heated to the boiling point in a small 
quantity of water. The term arrowroot is applied to starch from plants of 
the origin mentioned because the natives of the country producing them use 
the bruised rhizomes as a poultice for wounds caused by arrows. 

Canna edidis. — This species of Cannaceae also furnishes a starch of com- 
merce nearly allied to the Canna indica. The common commercial name 
of this variety of starch is "Tous le mois." The starch granules of this species 
are rather larger than those of the Canna indica, and the concentric markings 
are more delicate and regular. 



EDIBLE STARCHES. 



319 



Madagascar Arrowroot. — There is aisc; produced in Madagascar an arrow- 
root from a different form of i)lant, namely Tacca piiinaiipda. It is not, 
however, of any . very great commercial importance. A similar starch is 
made from the same plant in Otaheite. 

Plantain Meal. — The plants of the natural family .Musace;e are important 
articles of food in many tropical regions, the plant yielding also, in addition 
to the starch, libers suitable for textile use. The fruit of the Musa paradi- 




FiG. 46. — A Cassava Fikld in Georgia. — {Pliotograpli by II. II '. ll'il/y.) 



saica is chiefly employed for this purpose. It is quite similar in its character 
to the fruit of the allied species, Musa sapientum, or common banana. The 
starch granules which make up the plantain meal are remarkable for their 
long and narrow shape. The lines marking their surface are only faintly dis- 
tinguishable, and the hilum is small and somewhat indistinct. Plantain 
meal is not used to any very great extent outside of the country where it is 
produced. 



320 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

Sago. — Another form of starch which has a high value as a food product 
is made from the natural family Palmacete. The palm starch or sago is 
consumed in immense quantities in many parts of the world, and is probably 
in importance only second to the starch derived from the cereals as human 
food. The starch granules are rather large and coarse, although very many 
small granules are found mixed with them. Some of the larger granules 
appear to be partially divided or broken. The hilum is distinct and very 
long. The sago of commerce is like a tapioca made from the palm starch. 
It has been subjected to heat while still moist in the process of manufacture, 
so that it is quite difficult, as a rule, to find the distinct starch granules of 
the palm in the commercial article. Sago is grown principally in the Moluc- 
cas and Sumatra. 

South African Arrowroot. — There are many species of Marantaceae 
cultivated in South Africa from which arrowroot is manufactured. They 
are of the same variety as that used in Bermuda and the West Indies. The 
cultivation of the plant has modified to some extent the action of the starch 
granules as originally found in the uncultivated plant. The starch granules 
in the cultivated variety approach more nearly a spherical form. The con- 
centric lines are much more distinct and the hilum more prominent than in 
the wild variety. 

Tapioca. — The most important of the starch products used as food is the 
tapioca. It is made from the plant belonging to the natural family Euphor- 
biaceae, and is derived particularly from the variety of cassava plant known 
as Manihot. Attention has been called to the fact that many of the varieties 
of cassava plant are highly poisonous, due to the natural development dur- 
ing growth of hydrocyanic acid, one of the most violent of known poisons. 
This substance, however, is of quite a volatile character, and when com- 
minuted cassava root is heated or boiled, all or at least the principal part of 
the hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid) disappears. None of it or at least not 
more than a trace is found in the food product tapioca. A comparatively 
sweet variety of cassava that contains but a small proportion of prussic acid 
is grown in Florida and Georgia. The appearance of a field of cassa\'a is 
shown in Fig. 46. The tapioca of commerce is prepared by the separation of 
the starch in the usual way by grinding and washing with water. Before the 
starch becomes dry, in fact, while it still contains its maximum degree of 
moisture, it is subjected first to a low temperature which is gradually in- 
creased until the starch granules are disintegrated or agglutinated into a some- 
what firm and gelatinous mass. The heat is then continued at the proper 
temperature until the water is nearly all driven off. The starch from this plant 
is sometimes known as Brazilian arrowroot. 

The starch granules of the bitter cassava are very small and often angular 
in shape, although some of them appear as well rounded spheroids. The 



EDIBLE STARCHES. 32 1 

hilum is, as a rule, clearly distinguished. The microscopic appearance of the 
grains of cassava starch is shown in Fig. 47. 

Adulteration of Tapioca. — The true tapioca should only be made from 
starch of the cassava. Any starch, derived from any source whatever, if 
taken in the moist state may be subjected to the same process of heating, 
and forms an imitation tapioca which possesses many of the physical and 
probably all of the edible properties of the genuine article. The substi- 
tution, however, of any of the other starches for that of the cassava is at 
least an imitation, if not an adulteration, of the genuine article. 

Food Starches Derived from Cereals. — The starches which are derived from 



C 



«9 



t3. 



4° 





>0^ ° ^ ^ 




6 



Fig. 47. — Cassava Starch 



' /'■\i' Pureau of Chemistry.) 



the common cereals are also extensively used as food products, especially 
the maize starch in the United States. It is commonly sold as "corn" starch, 
and is largely used for the purpose already mentioned. It may be in its 
natural state or it may be previously submitted to the action of heat while 
still moist, so that it takes on the character of tapioca or sago. In the United 
States the Indian corn is practically the only cereal which furnishes the food 
starch in very large quantities, although rye starch is extensively used for 
this purpose in other countries. 

The starches of certain of the legumes, such as peas and beans, have also 
been separated and used for food purposes. They are not, however, used 



322 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

to any such extent as would warrant any especial reference to them at this 
point. 

Starch jrom the Peanut. — The peanut also yields a starch which has some- 
times been separated and used for food purposes. The quantity so employed, 
however, is not large enough to be of commercial importance. 

Food Starch Derived jrom the Potato. — Potato starch is also used very ex- 
tensively for food purposes, either in its natural form or when subjected to 
heat while still moist, as in the preparation of tapioca and sago. 

Adulteration 0} Starches. — The most common adulteration of starches is 
rather a misbranding than adulteration. The practice of adding inert white 
powdered mineral matters to starches is practically unknown in this country. 
Starch sometimes contains sulfurous acid used as a bleach in its preparation. 
This is an injurious substance and should be excluded from edible starches. 
The naming of a starch of one kind by the name of another and more valuable 
kind is simple deception. It is practiced to some extent in this and other 
countries. Starch itself may be used as an adulterant, as when maize starch 
is mixed with wheat flour or powdered starch mixed with granulated sugar. 
This kind of adulteration is quite unknown in this country. The selling of 
cheaper starches for tapioca and sago is more common than it should be. 

CONDIMENTS. 

Condiments other than Sugar, Salt, Vinegar, and Wood Smoke. — The 

principal condimental substances which are used for food are of vegetable 
origin and of a highly aromatic character. Condimental substances them- 
selves may have food value, that is, contain digestible material w^hich takes 
part in the metaboHc processes. Their utility, however, and their value 
do not depend upon the amount of food which they contain, but upon their 
aromatic and condimental principles above mentioned. Condimental sub- 
stances are used in a variety of ways, but in general it may be said that in 
an air-dried state they are reduced to a fine powder and employed in this 
form. Extracts may also be made from these condimental substances, either 
with water or usually with alcohol, and this extractable matter used as a 
condiment. The essential oils which they contain are also frequently separ- 
ated by distillation, and in this purified and concentrated state are, after 
dilution with alcohol, used for condimental purposes. Peppermint oil is a 
type of this character of condiments. 

It will be sufficient for the purpose of this manual to mention the principal 
condimental substances and refer for the character of their composition to 
the standards of purity estabUshed for them under authority of Congress in 
Circular 19, Office of the Secretary, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Allspice, also known as pimento, is the dried fruit of the Pimento pimento L. 



CONDIMENTS. 



323 



Anise. — The anise is a })lant which grows from 14 to 16 inches in height. 
Its botanical name is Pimpinella anisiim L. French, anis; (German, Anis; 
ItaHan, aniso; Spanish, anis. 

The anise produces abundant seeds, which are the principal condimental 
part. The seeds are used either directly in bread and other foods or espe- 
cially in the manufacture of liqueurs and confections. Anise seed is one of 
the oldest of condimental substances of which historical account has been 
preserved. 

Bay leaf is the dried leaf of the Lanriis nohilis L. In a powdered form 
it is used as a condimental substance in food, but it is chiefly employed in 
flavoring alcohol in the manufacture of the material known as bay rum. 

Capers. — The capers are obtained by drying the flower buds of the caper 
bush. The botanical name is Capparis spinosa L. French, caprier; Ger- 
man, Kapernstrauch; Italian, cappero; Spanish, alcaparra. 

The caper is a plant which is a native of southern Europe of shrub-like 
proportions, growing to a height of from three to five feet. The flower Ijuds 
are gathered when they are about as large as peas and are preserved by 
pickling in vinegar. 

Caraway. — This is a plant which is native to Europe, is either annual or 
biennial, and belongs to the botanical species Carum Carvi L. French, 
carvi; German, Feld-Klimmel; Italian, carvi; Spanish, alcaravea. 

The seeds contain the aromatic principles which make the caraway valu- 
able as a condiment. The plant often grows wild. The roots ha\'e some value 
as food and are also highly spiced, but are seldom eaten. The seeds are used 
very largely for flavoring bread, especially among the Germans. They are 
also used in certain varieties of cheese, especially that made in Holland. 
Often they are found in certain candies and other confections. 

Cassia is that variety of cinnamon obtained from other species of cinnamon 
than Cinnamomum zeylanicum, and is not so highly valued for condimental 
and other purposes as the true cinnamon. 

Cassia buds, which are often used for condimental purposes, are the dried 
immature fruit of any species of the cinnamomum plant. The cinnamon, 
as it is offered for condimental purposes, is usually finely ground, and the same 
is true of cassia. 

Celery Seed. — The seeds of celery are highly prized for condimental pur- 
poses, either as seeds or in the form of an extract. Both are also often recom- 
mended for medicinal purposes. 

Cinnamon. — The cinnamon is the bark of various species of plants belong- 
ing to the genus Cinnamomum. The true cinnamon is derived solelv from 
the bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyne. 

Cloves. — Cloves are dried buds of the Caryophyllus aromaticus L. They 
are used either in the original dried state or as a finel\- ground powder. 



324 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

Coriander. — The aromatic principles of coriander employed for condi- 
mental purposes are found in the dried seeds of the Coriandnim sativum L. 
This is a plant which is indigenous to southern Europe, growing from two to 
two and a half feet high. The seeds are used in the manufacture of liqueurs 
and for seasoning a great number of culinary preparations. It is stated by 
some authorities that the leaves are used for condimental purposes, but this 
is not the case. The leaves as well as the other green parts of this plant have 
a very unpleasant odor from which the name of the plant is derived. This 
odor is of a character which would exclude the leaves from use for condi- 
merital purposes. 

Cumin Seed. — The cumin plant {Cnminiim cyminitm L.) is thought to be 
indigenous to Egypt. It is an annual plant, sometimes growing from four 
to five inches high. The seeds are the aromatic part and are used for con- 
dimental purposes. They have a hot, acrid taste and a strong aromatic 
flavor. They are used chiefly for flavoring soups and in the manufacture 
of pastry of all kinds. They are also found in many kinds of liqueurs. 

Dill. — The dill plant {Anethum graveolens L.) is indigenous to southern 
Europe. It is an annual plant and grows from two to two and a half feet 
high. The seeds, which are the condimental part of the plant, are flat and 
have a strong and bitter flavor. They are used in this country principally 
for flavoring a kind of pickle known as the dill pickle. 

Fennel. — The fennel plant {Fwniculum fa'nicuhim L.) is indigenous to 
southern Europe. It grows both wild and under cultivation. The common 
garden fennel is biennial in its habits. The seeds contain the condimental 
properties of the plant, and the seeds of the cultivated fennel are usually 
about twice as long as those of the wild variety. They are flat on one side 
and convex on the other and crossed by thick yellow-colored ribs. The 
seeds are used chiefly in the manufacture of liqueurs. 

Ginger. — The ginger is the root of the plant Zingiber zingiber L., and is 
one of the most highly prized of the condimental substances. It is a plant 
which naturally contains a large amount of starch, which forms nearly half 
of its weight in the dried state. The roots are often sent into commerce covered 
with lime, either for the purpose of preserving them or bleaching them. This 
is such a common condition that the limed ginger or bleached ginger is recog- 
nized as a legitimate article of commerce. 

Mace. — The mace of commerce is composed of the dried arillus of Myristica 
jragrans Honttyn. Mace contains a large quantity of fatty substance, usu- 
ally not less than 20 nor more than 30 percent of its total weight. There 
are several varieties of mace on the market, the principal one being Ma- 
cassar mace, which is obtained from the dried arillus of Myristica argentea 
Warb. The Bombay mace is derived from the dried arillus of Myristica 
malabarica. 



MUSTARD, NUTMEG, PEPPER. 325 

Marjoram is the dried leaf of the plant known by the botanical name of 
Majorana majorana (L.) Karst. or Origaniim vulgare L. This plant is a 
native of Europe and is a very common wild plant in France, especially 
on the borders of the forests. It is also extensively cultivated. It is a per- 
ennial. The leaves of the plant are the condimental portions. A plant 
known as mountain mint is frequently sold as marjoram and has some of 
its condimental properties. 

Mustard. — The mustard seed is derived from various species, distinguished 
largely by the color of the seeds. For instance, the white mustard is the seed 
of Sinapis alba L., the black mustard the seed of Brassica nigra (L.) Koch, 
and the black or brown mustard the seed of Brassica juncea (L.) Casson. 
The mustard is a widely distributed plant probably indigenous to Europe. 
It grows extensively wild and is also largely cultivated. The mustard seed 
forms one of the most important condiments of commerce. The mustard is 
often ground before it is sold, and frequently it is mixed with other spices 
and with oils and is known as prepared mustard. This latter variety is 
subjected to all kinds of adulterations, frequently containing very little 
mustard but with enough turmeric to give the preparation a yellow color 
resembling that attributed to the pure article. Prepared mustard should be 
a thick paste composed largely of ground mustard seed together with salt, 
spices of different kinds, and vinegar. It may also be ground in oil. 

Nutmeg. — Nutmeg is the seed of Myristica jragrans. The seed is 
sent into commerce with a thin coating of lime, which, of course, must be 
removed before the nutmeg is used. It is principally used as the unground 
nut and by grating it into the food which is to be flavored at the time of use. 
The nut thus retains its flavor much better than when all ground at once 
and kept for some time. There are many varieties of nutmeg on the market, 
the principal ones being the Macassar, Papua, male, and long nutmegs. 
These are all the dried seeds of the Myristica ar gen tea. 

Pepper. — Pepper is one of the most important of the principal aromatic 
condimental substances. There are many standard varieties which are 
known to the trade and which are derived from distinct botanical species. 
The principal varieties are black pepper, white pepper, and paprika pepper. 
Black pepper is the dried immature berry of Piper nigrum L. White pepper 
is the dried mature berry of Piper nigrum L. from which the outer and the 
inner coatings of the seed have been removed. Paprika pepper is a red 
pepper of very mild aromatic qualities grown chiefly in Hungary and in 
Spain. 

Cayenne pepper is a very active aromatic red pepper which is the dried 
fruit of Capsicum jrutescens L. or Capsicum haccatum L. 

The red peppers, therefore, may be divided into two distinct classes, namely, 
cayenne or hot, acrid pepper and the paprika or mild-flavored pepper. There 



326 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

is another variety of pepper known on the market as long pepper which is the 
dried fruit of Piper longiim L. 

Saffron is the dried stigma of Crocus sativiis L. 

Sage is a common garden plant which is very extensively used for condi- 
mental purposes, belonging to the species Salvia officinalis L. Sage is 
used very extensively by the housewife in the preparation of domestic sausage, 
and is perhaps more commonly used in meat products of this description 
than in other foods. 

Savory or summer savory is a preparation from the leaf, the blossom, and 
tender tips of the branches of Salureja hortensis L. 

Sweet Basil. — This plant is indigenous to India, growing usually about one 
foot high. The botanical name is Ocymum basilicuni L. French, basilic 
grand; German, Basihkum; Itahan, basilico; Spanish, albaca. 

The leaves of the plant are the aromatic part and are extensively used for 
condimental purposes of different kinds. There are many varieties of basil 
in use. 

Thyme. — Thyme is a plant indigenous to southern Europe and belongs 
to the botanical species Thymus vulgaris L. It is a perennial plant and 
grows in the form of a small dwarf shrub. The plant may be propagated 
either by cuttings or may be grown from the seed. The leaves and young 
shoots of the thyme may be used for condimental purposes. Some other 
species of the thyme are also used for condimental purposes, especially the 
varieties known as lemon thyme and mother-of-thyme. 

Vegetable Flavoring Extracts. — In speaking of condimental substances it 
was stated that they were either used directly in a state of fine subdivision 
for flavoring purposes or their extracts were employed. The use of the 
extract is often more convenient than the use of the powdered material, and, 
also, it secures a more even distribution of the flavoring principal throughout 
the food product. It is doubtful, however, if for really condimental purposes 
there is any advantage in the use of the extracted materials. Nevertheless 
there are many food products in which it would be inconvenient to use the 
powdered aromatic substance itself and the flavoring extract has become 
established as a legitimate article of a condimental nature. 

All the common extracts used in foods are described in the standards of 
purity established by the Secretary of Agriculture by authority of Congress, 
and issued as Circular 19. 



FRUITS. 
Definition. — Under the term "fruit" is included the edible products of 
many trees and shrubs. The term "fruit" in its general sense can be ap- 
plied to any kind of a food product, as for instance the fruit of the farm, 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FRUITS. 327 

the fields, and the forest, but in a restricted sense, as it will be used 
here, it is applied to the class of orchard products represented bv apples, 
peaches, pears, etc. Fruits, in a general sense, include also that class of 
wild or cultivated edible bodies known as berries. The term "berry" is 
restricted in its present sense to the products of certain small shrubs or 
vines, such as gooseberries, blackberries, raspberries, etc. The fruits that 
grow upon small bushes, such as the currant and gooseberrv, occupy an in- 
termediate position between the orchard fruits which ha\'e been mentioned 
and berries. Orchard fruits are conveniently divided into large and small 
fruits, the large fruits being represented by the apple, pear, ])each, quince, 
etc., and the small fruit by the cherry and plum. Fruits were doubtless 
among the earliest foods of man, and this leads to another classification of 
fruits, namely, wild and cultivated. Wild fruits, at the present time, do not 
include any large proj^ortion of human foods. There are certain trees growing 
wild, such as the mulberry, the wild cherry, and others, which produce delicious 
fruits, usually of small size. The term "fruit" as used herein does not in- 
clude that very valuable class of foods known as nuts, which is considered 
under a separate classification. 

General Characteristics of Fruits. — The general characteristics of fruits 
include their color, flavor, odor, and nutritive properties in so far as we are con- 
cerned with them in this manual. They are composed very largely of water, 
perhaps 80 percent or more. The solid matter consists of the usual cellulose 
structure of vegetable bodies, sugars, gums, organic acids, and mineral matters. 
Fruits are all succulent, that is, by reason of their high content of water, com- 
posed chiefly of matters in solution which constitute their juices. All fruits, 
therefore, when subjected to pressure yield a juice which contains the principal 
portion of their dietetic constituents. The study of the composition of the 
fruit juices would, therefore, naturally accompany a study of the fruits them- 
selves. The chief characteristics of fruit from a dietetic point of view and 
also as to palatability are derived from their sugars and acids. The 
taste also is largely due to these components. In addition to this 
the fruits contain aromatic substances belonging to the class of essential 
oils and compound ethers which give to them the agreeable odor which adds 
so much to their value. Fruits are naturally colored and these colors, to 
which the eye is accustomed, become marks of distinction and excellence 
in many cases. The prevailing colors of fruits are red, yellow, and green. All 
shades of colors, however, are represented by the mingling of the primary 
tints. Certain colors are associated with certain fruits as, for instance, red 
with the cherry, raspberry, etc., green, red, and yellow with apples, and 
shades of red and yellow with peaches. These colors are due to the different 
conditions of the chlorophyll or vegetable coloring matter which the skin of 
the fruit contains. The three principal color tints which are produced are 



328 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

known as chlorophyll (green), xanthophyll (yellow), and erythrophyll (red). 
The mingling of these three distinct colors in the plant coloring matter forms 
the various tints which are seen in fruits and which render them so attractive 
to the eye. 

The sugars in fruit include both the common sugar (sucrose) and 
invert sugar, which contains equal quantities of dextrose and levulose. As 
the sugar is more or less abundant in proportion to the other ingredients the 
fruit is more or less sweet. The different fruits contain different quantities 
of sugar, — the richest perhaps is the grape which often in a state of complete 
maturity may have from 25 to 30 percent of sugar. Apples contain from 
five to 15 percent of sugar, and peaches and pears somewhat less. In fact 
this range in sugar will cover nearly all the fruits, large and small, as well as 
most of the berries. The quantity of sugar contained in each of the fruits 
will be especially noted in treating of them individually. One of the most 
important constituents of fruit from a palatable point of view is found in its 
organic acids. These vary in different classes of fruits. The most common 
organic acid in fruit is malic, which is the chief acid in the apple and allied 
forms. In citrus fruits, such as the lemon and orange, citric acid is the principal 
organic acid. In grapes the principal organic acid is tartaric. More than 
one of these acids is, however, usually contained in a single fruit, and other 
organic acids than those named are found in small quantities in various fruits. 
The three mentioned may be regarded as the typical acids in fruits. These 
acids, if prepared chemically and administered in a pure state, have practically 
no food value at all, and cannot be considered as wholesome material to place 
in the stomach. When, however, they are eaten in their natural state in 
combination with the potash and other bases which fruits contain, and mingled, 
as Nature has done, with the other constituents, they add not only to the pala- 
tability but also to the wholesomeness of the product. This is only another 
illustration of the fact that natural products are often wholesome and desirable 
where artificial products of the same kind chemically are hurtful and unde- 
sirable. Many fruits contain considerable quantities of a carbohydrate 
allied to some extent in its composition to sugar and starch but which 
has the property of setting to a semi-resilient mass known as jelly. This 
constituent in fruit is known as pectin or pectose and is present in greater or 
less quantities in almost all fruits. It is by the utilization of this component 
of fruit that the jellies which are so common an article of food are prepared. 
While in its phvsical properties the jelly of fruits has some resemblance to the 
gelatine or jelly of animals, its chemical composition and nutritive values 
are entirely different. The gelatine or jelly of animals is essentially a nitrog- 
enous product while the pectin or jelly of fruit is essentially a carbohydrate 
product. The two, therefore, are not to be confounded. 

Nutritive Uses. — The edible fruits are not only valuable on account of 



NUTRITIVE USES. 



329 



the nourishment they contahi but particularly so because of the general 
effect which they have upon the digestive operations. Their judicious use 
is conducive to health in many ways. The fruits are mildly laxative, as a 
rule, although there are some exceptions to this. For instance, in some berries, 
like the blackberry, the quantity of tannin present is sufficient to cause a 
stj^tic or binding action. While all the fruits contain tannin it is usually 
not in such proportions as to produce a constipating effect. On the other 
hand the combination of the acids, bases, pectins, and sugars favors a free and 
natural progress of the food through the alimentary canal. The entire with- 
drawal of fruit from the dietary, even if the nourishment it supplies be provided 
in some other way, would work great damage to health. There are certain 
dangers, however, to be avoided in the general use of fruit. Immature 
and imperfect fruits are unwholesome. Fruits are often subjected, moreover, 
to infection with eggs of various kinds of insects, and these organisms and the 
larvte or eggs thereof may be introduced into the stomach with more or less 
injurious effects. In the eating of fruit, care should be exercised in the 
inspection and proper preparation of the article; it should be free from infec- 
tion, decay, and insect life. The natural condition in which fruit is eaten is 
in the raw state, and in general it may be said that this is the more wholesome 
and preferable way of eating it. On the other hand the cooking of fruit ster- 
ilizes it and makes the consumer secure against any infection from bacteria and 
insect life, and in some ways promotes to a certain degree the digestive processes. 
This is especially true of fruits of a hard or unyielding nature. Cooked 
fruits, as a rule, may be considered less desirable than the natural article, but 
they desen^e mention on account of their freedom from infection, wholesome- 
ness, and general dietetic value. Some fruits, such as apples and pears, con- 
tain notable quantities of starch, especially in the immature state, and this 
disappears to a greater or less extent during the process of ripening. At the 
period of complete maturity the starch is reduced to a minimum and the sugar 
in the fruit reaches a maximum. After this period the fruit begins to lose in 
dietetic value, due to the natural process of decay, which is not even entirely 
checked by placing the fruit in cold storage. The sugar gradually ferments and 
disappears. The fruit becomes more spongy and less palatable and its general 
properties are impaired. Other fruits, such as tlie orange and lemon, berries, 
etc., contain little or no starch at any period of their growth. By careful 
storage the period of maturity may be prolonged for weeks or e\-en months, and 
thus the fruit made available over a very much longer period than would other- 
wise be the case. Under the existing conditions of communication with all 
parts of the world it is not impracticable for even those who are not blest with 
wealth to have a daily supply of fresh fruits grown in different parts of the world. 
In temperate climes fresh fruits are available from June until May of the fol- 



330 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



lowing year, either furnished directly from the orchard or properly preserved 
by storage. 

Apples. — The apple is one of the principal fruits in the market both 
because of its crop value and its general properties. 

It is the most abundant as well as the most valuable of fruits. The apple 
is grown practically in all parts of the United States, but there are some locali- 
ties in which apple trees are grown with special success. Among the states 
which are famous for apple growing may be mentioned New York, Virginia, 
Michigan, and Missouri. 

The varieties of apples are so numerous that it will be useless to attempt 
to mention them. Some of the most important are the Ben Davis, the Pippin, 
the Winesap, Jonathan, Rhode Island Greening, York, Albemarle Pippin, 
Clayton, Early Harvester, Sweet June, Tompkins King, Northern Spy, 
Russet, Yellow Bellflower, etc. 

Acidity of Apples. — One of the chief points in the palatability of apples as 
well as in their general character is their acidity. While apples are not relished 
when too sour they are as little relished when too sweet. The sugar and 
acid in apples are the chief factors in their palatability, not excluding the 
delicate flavor imparted by essential oils and ethereal substances which, 
though present in such small quantities as not to be measured chemically, 
nevertheless are highly important in making up the total effect of palatability 
and wholesomeness. The chief acid in apples is malic. It exists during 
all periods of the growth of the apple, but is more apparent in the green and 
immature state than in the ripe fruit. The relative quantity of malic acid 
in respect of sugar and starch is given under the heading of " Behavior of Apples 
During Storage." 

Adulteration of Apples. — There is, of course, no adulteration of apples 
in their natural state except the attempt which is sometimes made to deceive 
the purchaser respecting the character of the whole package by placing the 
best and most attractive fruit on the top. This is such a well known practice, 
though regrettable, as not to demand any particular comment. The purchaser 
who has his own interest at stake will usually inspect the bottom as well as 
the top of the package before buying. The chief forms of debasement are 
those which are not practiced with any attempt to deceive. They consist 
in offering apples which are bruised by carelessness in gathering, or which 
are infected by insect life. In fact the greatest damage to which the apple 
is subject is that of the ravages of insects. There are certain kinds of insects 
which naturally breed in the apple. The egg is often laid in the early develop- 
ment of the fruit and by the time the apples are ready for consumption the 
larvai stage has been reached and the worm has produced ravages to a great 
extent which are often not indicated by any external appearance. It is 
evident that the farmer cannot be held responsible in all cases for this condition 



APPLES. 



33^ 



of the fruit. Nevertheless it is only fair to state that in tlie modern develop- 
ment of the spraying industry the ravages of insect pests can be restrained 
and controlled, if not entirely prevented, by the proper spraying of the fruit. 
This spraying introduces another danger which cannot be forgotten, namely, 
the remaining upon the surface of the fruit of some of the spraying material 
itself. If present at all this material is apt to be either at the point of the 
junction of the stem with the fruit or at the opposite extremity of the apple. 
For this reason the fruit when eaten raw should be peeled in order that any 
remaining particles of the poisonous material used in spraying may be removed. 
It is to the interest of the merchant to present fruit of this kind in the most 
attractive form, by the exclusion of bruised, rotten, or infected apples and 
the offering of the sound, ripe fruit in as presentable a condition as possible. 
Composition of Apples at Various Stages of Maturity. — The following table 
shows the analysis made of one variety of apple, the Baldwin, at various 
stages of maturity: 



Condition. 



Solids. 



Invert 

Sugar. 



Can-f. 


Starch. 


Sugar. 




Percent. 


Percent. 


1.63 


4.14 


4-05 


3-67 


6.81 


•17 


5.26 


None 



Acidity as 
Malic .-Xcid. 



Ash. 



Percent. 

Very green, ! i S.47 

Green, ■ 20.19 

Ripe, ' 19.64 

Overripe, | 19-70 



Percent. 
6.40 
6.46 
7.70 



Pen 



1.14 

'•65 
.48 



Percent. 
0.27 

.27 
.28 



The chief point of interest in the above analysis is the gradual decline 
of the starch. When the apple is overripe the starch is entirely gone. When 
the apple is ripe only a small part of the starch is found. In the green apple 
very large quantities of starch are found. The sugar increases as the .starch 
diminishes. There is a little over 14 percent of sugar in the perfectly ripe 
apple but much less in the green. The aciditv calculated as malic acid dimin- 
ishes as maturity is approached. In general it may be said that in the ripening 
of an apple the starch is converted into sugar and the acidity is diminished. 

The composition of apples varies very greatlv, as mav be easily understood, 
Avith the variety of the apple examined, the character of the season in which 
it grew, and with the indi\idual apple or sample. The best that can be done 
in showing the composition of apples is to gi\-e some of the most reliable analy- 
ses, covering the largest range of examinations in this and other countries. 
In the following table are given three sets of analy.ses of American apples 
and two sets of foreign apples, the first three being American and the second 
series being foreign. 

The table gives the number of samples included in the analytical data, 
and the mean, maximum, and minimum results of the analyses. 



332 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



Series i : 

Average, . , 

Maximum, 

Minimum,.. . , 

Series 2 : 

Average, , 

Maximum,. . . 
Minimum,.. . . 

Series 3 : 

Average, 

Maximum,. . . 
Minimum, 

Foreign Variety 
Series i : 
Series 2 : 

Average, 

Maximum, 

Minimum,. . . . 



W 


Total 
Solids. 


Ash. 






cent. 


Per- 
cent. 


Per- 
cent. 




13-77 


.240 


•376 


13 


16.47 


.320 


.670 




9-37 


.170 


.190 


27 


16.43 

23-36 
13.46 


.27 
-34 

•17 


.486 
.811 
■073 


22, 


13-65 
16.55 
10.60 


.288 

.404 
.228 


•452 
.863 

•139 


17 


16.42 


.310 


.614 


5 


15-07 
16.03 


.290 
.360 


•234 
•329 




14.04 


.240 


.190 






Per- 
cent. 

-590 
.806 
•356 



•694 
1.094 

.421 

•39 



5" 
R ^ 

Pi 



Per- 
cent. 

7.04 



7-92 

11-75 

5-34 

8-73 

10.80 

6.89 



7-73 

10.12 

10.69 

9-77 



Per. 
cent. ■ 

4-59 
7-79 
1.80 



3-99 
6.81 

1-74 



1-53 
2.81 

•15 



•55 

1. 11 

None 






Per- 
cent. 



0.96 

1.29 

.70 



The combination of the average data of the American series shows a mean 
percentage of reducing or invert sugar of 7.90 and of cane sugar of 3.40. 
The average American apple therefore contains 11.30 percent sugar. 

Dietetic Value. — The wholesomeness of apples is well recognized by all 
authors on physiology and hygiene, and the necessity of at least a partial 
fruit diet is acknowledged by all. Inasmuch as the apple is one of the most 
abundant of fruits, being produced in enormous quantities and sold often 
at a very low rate, its value as a food product is probably not as fully acknowl- 
edged by our own people as it should be. Through a greater part of the year 
apples can be made a staple article of diet. They are, of course, to be most 
highly recommended uncooked, and especially those varieties which have high 
palatable qualities and a suitable softness of texture. Very hard apples, 
even if palatable, are not recommended for eating raw. In a cooked state 
the apples are scarcely less wholesome and nutritious than in the raw state. 
It is true that in pastry their good qualities are often counteracted by the 
poor quality of the pastry envelop which, by reason of the method of its prep- 
aration, usually with an e.xcessive quantity of lard or some other oil or fat, is 
rendered sometimes not only unpalatable but also difficult of digestion. In a 
stewed condition or prepared in some other unobjectionable manner no ad- 
verse criticism can be made upon the quality of the apple as an edible 
product. It may also be preserved in cans by sterilization by the process 
described under canned fruits. In this condition the product is known as 



APPLES. ■ 333 

"canned apples." When prepared in this way the apples are often llavored 
with sugar and sometimes with spices. 

Many suggestions are often given as to the proper time for eating apples, 
but it probably makes little difference, so far as their dietary or hygienic 
character is concerned, whether they are eaten before or after meals or during 
meals. Since it is advisable, as a rule, not to introduce into the stomach 
continually fresh portions of food, it ma}- be regarded as safe advice to suggest 
that the consumption of fruit be made practically a function of the meal 
and that it be not used indiscriminately, loading the stomach between meals 
with additional quantities of material which require digestion. 

Length oj Harvest. — By selecting varieties that mature early in the summer, 
in the early autumn, and in the late autumn the period for harvesting apples 
may be prolonged in the northern states from August to November. During 
this period, if the different varieties are properly selected for the maturing time, 
the ripe apple can be offered to the markets fresh from the tree during the 
entire season. As a rule the later maturing varieties are more palatable, more 
aromatic, and more nutritious than those that mature early. 

Pectose Content oj Apples. — The juice of apples like the juice of many other 
fruits has the property of coagulating to a solid or semi-solid material on 
boiling to a proper consistence and allowing to stand. It is due, essentially, 
to the existence of pectin or pectose bodies as described in the introduction 
to the chapter on fruits. This is a body allied to the carbohydrates and 
must be regarded as one of the essential constituents of apples and as 
imparting to them a characteristic flavor and quality. 

Picking and Care oj Apples. — The greatest dilBculty experienced in market- 
ing apples is in the danger of bruising either at the time of picking or during 
transportation. The apple when removed from the tree still remains a 
living organism with all of its functional activities, except additional growth, 
continuing in full power. As a rule, at the time of picking the apple is not 
yet mature, and unless intended for immediate consumption the utmost care 
should be exercised that the skin be not broken or the flesh bruised. Where\'er 
the flesh of the apple is bruised it lessens its vitality and decay soon begins. 
This is shown very conclusively in the studies in the Bureau of Chemistry, 
where it was found that the starch which is still present in apples at the time 
of picking is gradually converted into sugar during the storage of the apple, 
thus increasing the palatability of the fruit. In those parts of the flesh that 
have been bruised and the vitality impaired the starch remains unchanged 
during the process of ripening. By the careful picking of the fruit and wrap- 
ping in soft papers, so as to prevent bruising in transit, apples of the proper 
character can be transported long distances, even beyond the seas, and arrive 
in good condition. This is an especially important fact in ihe American 
market, because our foreign trade in fresh apples is very large and constantly 



334 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

growing. It is useless to attempt to send a bruised or decaying apple on a 
long journey, since it will arrive in a condition unfit for consumption and, 
further than this, the organisms which are active in decay are conveyed to 
the sound fruit, and thus a whole package may be infected from a single 
apple in bad condition. 

Storage oj Apples. — The apple is a crop which is capable of being stored 
through many months, especially in winter time, without any material dete- 
rioration. The subject of the storage of apples has been carefully studied in 
the Bureau of Chemistry and the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the following 
are some of the conclusions which have been reached: 

Tannin Principle. — Apples, as is the case with other fruits, have a notable 
content of tannin in some form. This constituent of apples is also active 
in giving flavor and palatability to the product. It is not present in quan- 
tities which render the apple unusually bitter or styptic in its character. Inas- 
much as tannin is practically a universal constituent of all vegetable sub- 
stances it must not be neglected as a normal constituent of fruit, while some 
of the fruits, especially the grape, owe some of their chief characteristics 
as to flavor and palatability to their tannin content. 

Preparation oj Apples jor Drying. — The apples usually are brought to the 
large factories in wagons or by railway and are pared and sliced by machinery. 
Where proper control is exercised all the imperfect, rotten, and infected 
apples are rejected, and are used either for cattle feeding or sometimes, un- 
fortunately, in cider making. The sound apples, after they are pared and 
sliced, are placed in trays and passed to a sulfuring apparatus where they 
are exposed to the fumes of burning sulfur to prevent their becoming 
dark upon evaporation. In other words it is essentially a bleaching process. 
The fumes of sulfur are also strongly antiseptic in character, and thus the 
finished product is less likely to decay or become infected with mould 
than a similar product not exposed to the fumes of sulfur. This process 
is extensively practiced, but its extent does not render it immune from proper 
criticism. Of 24 samples of evaporated fruits purchased on the open market 
13 samples had been treated with sulfur fumes. This shows that over 50 per- 
cent of evaporated fruits are sulfured during the process of preparation and 
evaporation. The greater number of physiological and hygienic experts 
agree that the fumes of burning sulfur, commonly known as sulfurous acid^ 
are injurious to health. It has been shown by researches in the Bureau of 
Chemistry that sulfurous acid or sulfites have a specific influence upon the 
red corpuscles of the blood, tending to diminish them very largely in relative 
numbers. This acid has also many other influences upon metabolism of an 
objectionable character. The cjuestion is one worthy of very careful con- 
sideration — whether for the sake of preserving a light color and securing 
immunity from mould or decay it is advisable to introduce into a food prod- 



APPLES. 



335 



uct any quantity whatever of a substance injurious to health. The answer 
to this question seems almost unavoidable, and it is, and should be, negative. 
It is highly advisable that the manufacturer of evaporated apples, as well 
as other fruits treated in a similar manner, should at once begin a series 
of experimental determinations for the purpose of ascertaining whether 
or not a product ecjually as palatable and more wholesome cannot be made 
without the use of sulfurous acid. The result of this investigation cannot 
be doubted. There is no doubt whatever, even at the present time, that 
by the elimination of the sulfuring process a product can be made which is 
far more wholesome, although perhaps not so presentable as that which is 
now made. If all manufacturers of evaporated fruits practice the same 
method there can be no financial injury as a result of the darker color which 
the finished product would assume. On the contrary the consumer of this 
product would soon understand that a different color was due to a more 
hygienic method of preparation, and hence the product would be commended 
in such a way as doubtless would largely increase its consumption. Instead 
of the manufacturer being injured by the prohibition of the use of sulfur 
he would in a very short time be greatly benefited. It is hoped that bv 
the means of general information which is spread al^road concerning 
matters of this kind among our people and also through the operations of 
national and state laws the use of injurious substances, such as the fumes 
of burning sulfur, in connection with food products, may be entirely dis- 
continued. 

Dried Apples. — A very important industry in this country is the preserva- 
tion of apples by drying or evaporation. The term "dried" apples is 
usually applied to the product which is naturally dried by cutting the 
apples into convenient sizes and exposing them to the action of the sun. 
This is more of a domestic than a commercial industry, and until 
the introduction of artificial drying was practiced very generally by the 
farmers' wives of the country. It was not an \musual thing in the autumn 
to see the roofs of smoke houses or kitchens practically covered with 
sliced apples exposed to the drying influence of the autumnal sun. In such 
cases care must be exercised always to have the exposed articles under such 
control as to enable them to be gathered up and put away when rain is threaten- 
ing. The dried apple is a wholesome fruit, although somewhat unattractive in 
appearance owing to the darkening of the surface during the long exposure 
necessary to secure the proper degree of evaporation. When properly pre- 
pared the dried apple has its moisture content reduced to approximately 30 
percent or less. 

Evaporated Apples. — The term "evaporated" is applied to apples produced 
on the same principle as those "dried, "but instead of being exposed to the sun's 
heat they are artificially dried by evaporation. This industry has reached 



33^ 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



a great magnitude in this country, and Wayne Co., New York, especially, 
may be regarded as one of the centers of the evaporating industry. 

Cherries. — The cultivated cherry tree is believed by Bailey and Powell to 
have been derived from its ancestral type, the sour cherry {Pruniis cerasus L.), 
which is characterized by a diffuse and mostly low, round-headed growth 
with fruit which is always red, with soft flesh and very sour taste, and from 
the sweet cherry {Primus avium L.), a tall growing tree with the bark tending 
to peel off in birch-like rings and with variously colored fruit, spherical or 
heart-shaped, with the flesh hard or soft and generally sweet. There are a 
great many varieties of these trees. The cherry orchard begins to bear 
profitably at about the age of five years; the trees often live to a great age 
and continue to bear fruit. Records of cherry trees over a hundred years old 
are known. However, it is believed that about thirty years is the limit for 
profitable bearing. Cherries grow in all parts of the United States. Formerly 
the crop was a very important one in the East, especially New York, but of 
late years the California cherries have been more and more occupying the 
market. As a rule the California cherries are finer in appearance, larger, 
and freer from worms and imperfections, and possess a flavor which is often 
equal to that of the best flavored cherries grown in the East. 

Composition of Cherries. — What has been said respecting the variations 
in the composition of apples is applicable with equal force to cherries. In 
the following table is given first the mean composition of six samples of cherries 
of American origin with the maximum and minimum. Following this is 
the mean composition of nine samples of foreign cherries. 



Origin. 



American 

Average, . . . 

Maximum,. 

Minimum,. 
Foreign 

Average,... 



No. OF 
Sam- 
ples. 


Total 
Solids. 


Ash. 


Acidity 

Ex- 
pressed 

AS H2SO4. 


Protein 
NX6.25. 


Total 
Sugars. 




Per- 
cent. 


Per- 
cent. 


Per- 
cent. 


Per- 
cent. 


Per- 
cent. 


6 


20.13 
38.84 
11.46 


•443 
•521 
•403 


•432 
.605 
.328 


1-425 
1.727 
I.IOO 


II. 10 

12.75 
8.98 


9 


19.74 


•73 


•66s 


.620 


10.24 



The data show that the average quantity of insoluble matter in cherries 
is about the same whether of American or foreign origin. The total solids 
represent that part of the cherry which is not water, including principally 
the cellulose, the ash, and the protein. The quantity of protein, as is seen, is 
quite small, the average being a little less than ij percent. The total sugar 
present, including cane sugar and reducing sugar, is a little over 11 per- 
cent. The analytical table does not give the minute portions of essential 



GRAPES. 337 

oils, ethereal substances, and acids to which the juice owes its distinctive 
flavor. 

Varieties. — There are a great many trade-names given to ditTerent varieties 
of cherries. In New York the common varieties are the Black Tartarian, 
Black Eagle, Napoleon, Yellow Spanish, Windsor, May Duke, Robert's 
Red Heart, Governor Wood, Early Richmond, etc. 

A great many cherrv trees are also grown in Iowa. The varieties most 
prized in Iowa are the Malaheb, the Mazzard, Wild Bird Cherry, Sand 
Cherry, American Alorello, Russian Seedling, Northwest, Duchess d'Angou- 
leme, and very many others. 

In Virginia the principal varieties, in addition to those mentioned, which 
are cultivated, are the Coe, Early Purple, Kirtland Mary, Rockport, Olivet, 
Philippe, etc. 

The cherry owes one of its chief values to the fact that it is one of the 
first orchard fruits to ripen. In the vicinity of Washington cherries ripen in 
May, and further north not later than June. The cherry, therefore, offers 
a delicious and wholesome fruit early in the season, and is the precursor of 
the crops of orchard fruits which begin early in May and last until the frosts 
of autumn. It is eaten raw, stewed, or in the form of pie or pudding. For 
cooking purposes it is desirable that the pit of the cherry be removed. 

Grapes. — There is no fruit more highly esteemed in this and other countries 
than grapes. The utilization of grapes for wine making is reserved for dis- 
cussion in the companion volume to the present manual devoted to beverages. 
Table grapes are grown extensively in this country in New York, Ohio, Vir- 
ginia, Missouri, and California. In fact, such grapes are grown in almost 
every state, but those mentioned embrace the principal grape-growing districts. 
The Catawba and Delaware varieties are the chief products of the northern 
vineyards. Many other varieties are produced in California, such as the 
Tokay, Muscat, and Malaga, while in the South one of the principal varieties 
is the Scuppernong. The oldest grape vine known in the United States is the 
original Scuppernong stock. 

I am indebted to Dr. B. W. Kilgore, of Raleigh, N. C, for the following 
description of the vine and also for Fig. 48. 

"The Scuppernong Vine on Roanoke Island, North Carolina. 

"The old scuppernong grape vine on Roanoke Island is probably the 
oldest fruiting plant in America — certainly one of the oldest of which there 
is definite knowledge. A clear record of it begins in 1797, when the land on 
which it was growing was purchased by IVIaurice Baum. Previous to his 
purchase nothing definite is known as to its age or to whom it belonged, save 
the fact that it was then a very old vine, as Maurice Baum was told by his father 
that he had eaten grapes from it when a boy. From Maurice Baum the estate, 
23 



33& 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



of which the vine was a part, descended to his daughter, Mahala, and from her 
to Benjamin F. Meekins, her son, who is the present owner. 

"The vine is situated on the northern end and on the eastern shore of the 
island, about two miles south of the supposed site of Fort Raleigh. It covers 
an area of about one-fourth of an acre, and as far back as can be remembered 
its growth has been stationary, probably due to a lack of proper training and 
inducement to spread. The vine has five large trunks averaging two feet in 
circumference v>hich are indescribablv gnarled and twisted. It is still vigorous 




nmiiiiniTi 
Fig. 48.— Scuppernong Grape Vink, Roanoke Island. — {Courtesy B. W. Kilgore.) 



and yields abundantly, seemingly unaffected by age in this respect. A con- 
servative estimate of its yield is an average of sixty bushels of grapes a season." 

There is no part of the country, however, that grows grapes so abundantly 
as California. Many thousands of acres are covered with vines, both for table 
use and wine making. The climate is remarkably well suited to produce a 
grape very rich in sugar. The edible grapes do not have so high a content of 
sugar as those used for wine making, as is shown by the data below. 

Composilion of Calijornia Grapes (three samples) (edible portion): 

Water, .<. . .80.12 percent 

Protein, 1.26 " 

Sugar, 16.50 " 

Pure ash, 0.50 " 

Fat, fiber, etc., 1.62 " 



PEACHES. 



339 



The preceding analyses are evidently of grapes for taljle use. The juice 
of the wine-making grapes of California, according to the composition of the 
wine, contains about 24 percent of sugars. 

The luxurious growth of the vine in California is illustrated by Fig. 49, 
showing a scene in a vineyard near Fresno, California. 

Peaches. — One of the most valued orchard fruits in the United States 
is the peach. The peach is a tree which is particularlv sensitive 
to the environment in respect of bearing a crop. In many localities where 




Fig. 4q.— \'inkvard Near Fresno, California.— (/'Ai'/i^i.'ra/'A by II. II'. li'iUy.) 



peaches have once been valuable they have ceased to produce with any regu- 
larity, which renders the planting of an orchard inadvi-sable. The principal 
danger in the peach tree is the too early blooming and the exposure of the 
tender fruit to late frosts. The peach tree is also subject to many forms 
of disease, one of which, namely, the yellows, has baffied up to the present 
time the efforts of the experts to diagnose and treat. In planting a peach 
orchard experience has shown that it is well to plant the trees upon high 
ground or upon the sides of hills. By being placed on high ground near deep 
ravines it has been found that the chilling of the air, which would naturally 



340 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

•come with frosts, makes the air heavier, so that it rolls down into the valleys, 
replacing the air on the hills with fresh portions unchilled and thus protecting 
the high ground from frost while the low ground is chilled below the freezing 
point. Everyone must have noticed, especially in the autumn at the time 
of the first frosts, that the vegetation in low lying land is usually killed before 
that on the adjacent hills. The peculiar susceptibility of the peach tree to 
the environment mentioned above has practically confined the culture of 
peaches to certain definite localities, as for instance to Michigan, Connecticut, 
Delaware, Maryland, Tennessee, and Georgia. The danger of late frosts 
of course does not attach to the peach tree grown in California and similarly 
situated localities. At the present time Georgia is probably the most impor- 
tant peach-growing state in the Union, both on account of the reasonable 
■certainlv of the crop and also because of the early date at which the peach 
can reach the markets of the large cities of the east and central portions of 
our country. 

Many attempts have been made to protect the peach tree against the danger 
of premature blossoming and consequent exposure to the late frosts. In 
the cultivation of the trees it has been desirable to secure a variety which 
blooms as late in the spring as possible. The building of fires around a peach 
orchard in the spring when a frost is imminent has sometimes protected the 
orchard from disaster. This process is known as smudging. Another method 
of protecting the trees from the danger of late frosts is by whitewashing. 
The colors which absorb heat most readily are black and purple. White 
is one of the best protections by reason of its retiective power. A white- 
washing of the branches of the trees and in fact of all the tree has been prac- 
ticed with some success as retarding the early bloom of the buds. Elaborate 
studies of this method of treatment have been carried on by the Missouri 
station, and it has been developed that there is a considerable difference be- 
tween the temperature of whitewashed and unwhitewashed peach twigs. 
The whitewash is therefore recommended as a means of retarding the devel- 
opment of the buds. The whitewashed trees bloom from a week to ten days 
later than those which are not thus treated. It is reasonably certain that 
by means of this kind or by cultivation a peach tree may be produced in any 
given locality which will put forth its buds from a week to ten days later 
than the normal period of blooming in that neighborhood. In regions where 
the winters are severe, the development of the tree in the early spring may 
also be prevented by placing straw round about it when the ground is frozen. 
The straw protects the frozen ground from rapid thawing and thus delays 
the development of the buds. The varieties of peach trees are legion, and 
it is useless to try to name them here. Some of the varieties most prized in 
Georgia are the Bishop, Champion, Crawford's Early, Chinese Free, Crimson 
Beauty, Crosby, etc. 



PLUMS. 



341 



Composition of the Peach. — Naturally, the peach varies greatly in its 
composition according to the variety, environment, and general accidental 
conditions. Its chief characteristics, of course, are the acid which it con- 
tains, its sugar content, and the taste and aroma due to the essential oils, 
ethers, etc., which are developed with proper delicacy in the fruit. The peach 
also has a distinct flavor associated with small cjuantities of hydrocyanic acid. 
This poisonous compound is developed in considerable quantities in the 
kernel of the fruit, and there are sufficient traces of the flavor above mentioned 
in the fruit itself to give a distinct and characteristic taste. The mean com- 
position of some of the different varieties of peaches is given below: 

Water, 88.1 percent 

Protein, 7 " 

Fat, I " 

Ash, 7 " 

Sugar and other carbohydrates, 10.8 " 

Free and Cling Peach. — Peaches may be divided into two great classes in 
respect of persistence with which the flesh adheres to the pit of the fruit. 
Peaches in which the flesh is separated easily from the pit, leaving the external 
surface of the pit dry and clean, are called freestones, while in the other variety, 
where the flesh is firmly attached to the pit and on the removal of the flesh 
a portion adheres thereto, the term " clingstone " is applied. There is prob- 
ably no difference in the value of the two varieties, but by reason of the ease 
with which the freestone peach can be utilized for eating and cooking purposes 
it is sometimes preferred. 

Since the development of rapid means of transportation and the effective 
applications of cold storage the peach is found in city markets from early 
spring to late autumn. The peaches in Florida are ready for the market 
in May and in Georgia from June on, while in the north the peach ripens at 
later periods up to October. In fact in the north the late peaches are esteemed 
as better in flavor and quality, and especially suitable for canning and pre- 
serving purposes. 

Uses 0} the Peach. — Peaches are perhaps the most esteemed of all the 
common fruits for eating purposes. On the table the sliced peaches with 
sugar and cream is a common dish through the whole summer in almost 
every part of the country. Peach cobbler (a deep pie) and peach pudding 
are dishes which are highly esteemed. 

Plums. — (Native Plums.) The following data represent the mean com- 
position of three samples of California plums: 

Total solids, 2 1.60 percent 

Ash, 52 " 

Acidity, i .00 " 

Protein, 40 " 

Total sugars, 13-25 " 



342 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

The plums imported from Japan and the hybrids produced therefrom 
are considered of higher value than the native plum. The Japan plum 
{Prumis triflora) has been introduced into this country for many years. They 
are larger and handsomer and have better shipping qualities than those of 
native origin, except perhaps in a few cases. The trees are also less subject to 
that great enemy of the plum, the curculio, than the native plum. Of the 
plum trees grown in Georgia the varieties of native trees which are recom- 
mended are the Clifford and the Wilder, of Japan trees the Lutts, Red 
June, Abundance, and Chabot, and of the hybrid varieties, the Wickson. 
Plums in Georgia mature from the first of June until the middle of July. 
Further north the date of maturity is later. The plum, as well as the cherry, 
flourishes especially in California, which is more famous for these fruits than 
any other state. 

Quince. — The quince is a fruit which is not very extensively used raw, but 
is valued chiefly as a preserve. The quince flourishes in localities that produce 
good apples, but the magnitude of the crop is very restricted as compared with 
apples. 

Small Fruits. 

Blackberries (Ruhus nigrohaccus var. Sativiis Bailey). — Among the small 
fruits one of the most common and abundant is the blackberry. This fruit 
grows wild over large areas in the United States, mostly in the middle portion 
between the extreme north and south. The brier on which it grows is an an- 
nual plant, springing each year from the roots and dying after bearing fruit. 
The plant is very largely cultivated, bearing larger and more presentable 
berries, but gaining nothing in flavor and palatability. The berries are 
generally black when fully ripe, though red during the ripening stage and some- 
times when mature. They are eaten raw, stewed, and in pies or "cobblers." 
The berry is extensively used for making jams, jellies, and preserves, and for 
canning purposes. The juice of the berry is used for making a wine, usually 
with the admixture of sugar. Blackberry cordial is blackberry juice preserved 
in whisky or brandy with sugar and aromatics. 

Dewberry. — This is a variety of blackberry in which the vines lie on the 
ground instead of standing upright. Some of the dewberries possess unusual 
fragrance and palatability. In other respects they conform to the statements 
relating to blackberries. 

Gooseberry (Ribes oxyacanthoides L.). — The gooseberry resembles very 
closely the currant in its general properties. The surface of the European goose- 
berry is covered with prickles, but the American variety is smooth. The goose- 
berry bush is found in most gardens, affording a fruit of high condimental 
value. The fruit is eaten raw, but is used principally in pies and as preserves. 

Huckleberry {Gaylussacia resinosa Torr. and Gray). — The fruit of the 
huckleberry bush is used very extensively for making pies, especially in the 



ANONA. 343 

northeastern parts of the United States. There are many varieties of the berry 
on the markets. The blueberry is one variety that is very abundant. The 
term whortleberry is also applied to this fruit. 

Mulberry [Morns nigra). — The mulberry grows wild over extensive areas 
in the United States, especially in the Ohio valley. It is a tree valued highly 
for its wood, which is lasting and excellent for fence-posts. The berries ripen 
early in the summer or late in the spring and are used as food to a limited 
extent. 

Raspberry {Ruhus strigosns Michx.). — The raspberry resembles the black- 
berry in many of its characteristics. It is chiefly a cultivated plant, being less 
hardy than the blackberry, and therefore not growing wild to such an extent. 
The fruit matures just before the blackberry, and is usually of a red color and 
of a pleasant characteristic taste. 

Strawberry (Fragaria ChUoensis Ehrh.). — For edible purposes in its fresh 
state the strawberry is the most important of the small fruits. It is offered on 
the markets at all seasons of the year — ripening in the winter time in Florida 
and California and coming into the markets in the late summer in the northern 
and northeastern states. It grows on vines lying on the ground and ripens 
early in the spring in the latitude of Washington, viz., from about the middle 
of May. It is eaten raw— often with sugar and cream — more extensively 
than any other small fruit. The wild strawberry is not so large as the culti- 
vated variety, but is more highly prized for its aroma and taste. 

Composition of Small Fruits. — 

Sugar, Starch 

Water. Protein. Fat. Etc. Ash. 

Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. 

Blackberries, 86.3 1.3 i.o 10.9 0.5 

Cranberries, 88.9 0.4 0.6 9.9 0.2 

Huckleberries, 81.9 0.6 0.6 16.6 0.3 

Raspberries,.. 84.1 1.7 i.o 12.6 0.6 

Strawberries, 85.9 0.9 0.6 7.0 0.6 

Tropical and Subtropical Fruits. 

(Bulletin 87, Bureau of Chemistry.) 

Anona. — This is a variety of edible fruit grown in the tropics, especially 
in Cuba, but on account of its restricted production is of little importance. 
There are three varieties, known as follows: Sweet-sop (anona) (Anona 
squamosa L.), sour-sop (guanabana) (Anojia muricata L.), and custard 
apple (chirimoya) {Anona reticulata L.). The sour-sop is a green, irregular- 
shaped, pod-like fruit, varying from 3^ inches to 12 inches in length and about 
two-thirds as broad near the top, and curving to a blunt point at the lower end. 
The skin is thick and covered with numerous small, hooked briers. The 
pulp has the appearance of wet cotton and surrounds the numerous seed sacs 
containing the small brown seeds. A fibrous core runs through the fruit from 
the stem to the lower point. The fruit weighs from 3.5 ounces to 2.2 pounds. 



344 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



The flavor is acid, but not too much so. This fruit is more extensively used in 
the manufacture of cooHng beverages than directly as a food, but it is also 
used very extensively for making preserves. The sweet-sop resembles the 
sour-sop in general character, but does not attain by any means to so large a 
size. The fruit is heart-shaped and deeply creased. The pulp contains more 
sugar and less acid than that of the sour-sop. This variety is eaten fresh and 
is also used for flavoring beverages, but is not extensively used for making 
preserves. The third variety, known as the custard apple, varies in color from 
light green to reddish brown, and is shaped something like a strawberry. It 
has a thick skin and black seeds, and a pulp very similar to that of sweet-sop 
in flavor. It is eaten chiefly raw, and is not very extensively used in the manu- 
facture of preserves. 

Composition 0} the Sour- and Sweet-sop Varieties. — 



Anona. 


Edible 
Portion. 


Solids. 


Total 
Sugar. 


Protein. 


Ash. 


Acidity. 


Sour-sop, 


Percent. 
72.30 
30.00 


Percent. 
19.03 
28.10 


Percent. 

13-07 
10.07 


Percent. 
1.65 
2.13 


Pel cent. 
.41 
.92 


Percent. 

-51 
.20 


Sweet-sop, 







The above analyses show that the anona is a fruit which has about half the 
nutritive value of the banana. It has a much larger percentage of waste, 
especially the sweet-sop variety, nearly three-fourths of which is not edible. 

Anona Preserves. — The anona preserves should be made exclusively with 
sugar and thus have the character of the fruit modified only by the amount 
of sugar added. In one sample of preserves analyzed the following data 
were obtained: 

Total solids, 54-33 percent 

Total sugar, 49-66 " 

Protein, 73 " 

Ash, 43 

Acidity, 19 

The above data show that the natural constituents of the fruit have been 
diminished in quantity in proportion to the amount of sugar added. 

The Avocado {Persea persea). — The avocado is a fruit which has only 
lately been introduced into the United States. Its common name is alligator 
pear and it is already very highly prized. 

The cultivation of the alligator pear was first undertaken as a novelty, and 
its real value as a dessert fruit is only beginning to be appreciated. It is 
evident that this fruit will have a great vogue in the near future, and will be 
in great demand as soon as its production is on a scale which makes it accessible 
to the people of ordinary means. The edible part of the fruit is a sweet, 



BANANAS. 345 

soft substance with an agreeable taste and of a semi-solid consistence. It 
has a nutty and peculiar tlavor which is very pleasing. In the regions where 
the alligator pear is grown it is often used in the raw state or after ha\ing been 
treated with a little salt. It is also often cut into small pieces and put into 
soup and is said to give a most agreeable odor and tlavor thereto. The ripe 
fruit has different colors; it may be green, yellow, brown or dark purple or 
a combination of any of these colors. The alligator pear is particularly valued 
as a salad fruit. 

Composition of the Avocado. — 

Water, Si. 10 per cent. 

Protein, i .co " 

Fat, 10.20 " 

Starch and sugar, 6.80 " 

Ash,. . , qo " 

These data show that the alligator pear is not a fruit which is very highly 
nutritious. Its chief nutrient is fat, the next most important elements being 
starch and sugar, but it is extremely deticient in protein, and, therefore, could 
not be regarded as a balanced ration. Its principal value, therefore, is based 
on its condimental properties rather than on its nutrients. Bulletins 61 and 77 
of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, contain interest- 
ing information regarding the avocado. The accompanying illustration is 
taken from the latter report. 

From the amount of fat in the alligator pear it might be regarded as a nut 
instead of a fruit, but its paucity of nitrogenous constituents excludes it from 
that category. 

Bananas (Musa). — One of the most abundant and most important of the 
tropical fruits, for food purposes, is the banana. This fruit is not grown to 
any extent for food purposes in the United States, though it is produced on 
a limited scale in southern Florida. Immense quantities of bananas come 
into this country from the Central American states, particularly from Guate- 
mala and Nicaragua. This fruit can be landed at New Orleans at very small 
expense for transportation, and for this reason can be distributed all over 
the country at a price which seems to be ridiculously small when it is considered 
that the fruit comes from so great a distance. It is also sent in large quantities 
to other ports, notably New York, Boston, and Baltimore. For shipping 
purposes the banana is gathered while still green, and often the ripening 
has not reached the stage at which the ordinar}- yellow color which charac- 
terizes the ripe fruit is seen when it reaches the markets in the center of the 
country. The banana is not only valued for its peculiar tla^-or, which is 
pleasant and sweet, sometimes almost too much so, but it also has a high 
nutritive value, being a substance rich in carbohydrates and growing in such 



346 



VEGr.TABLr.s, cox::.I-Mi:nts, fruits. 




Fig. 50.— Avocado 'i:RKK.—(Con}-/esy Department of Agriculture.) 



BANANAS. 



347 



abundance that its price is within the reach of the poorest classes. Great 
quantities of bananas are also grown in Cuba, but they are mostly consumed 
by the native population, forming one of the principal foods of the island. 

The banana has perhaps less waste than almost any other fruit, as the whole 
of the inner portion is edible. In the green fruit there is a large proportion 
of starch, which gradually changes into invert sugar in the ripe fruit. In 
thoroughly mature bananas the quantity of sugar is relatively high and the 
quantity of starch correspondingly low. Bananas are not only eaten raw 
but also fried and in various other forms. The banana is a fruit which, when 
properly cared for, can be transported over long distances and kept for a long 
time. When properly prepared the banana forms a nutritious diet, probably 
equal in value to the same amount of solid matter contained in the common 
fresh fruits. One hundred grams may be taken as the average weight of 
the banana, although some of them are very much larger. About 70 per- 
cent of the banana is edible and 30 percent inedible, that is, the skin, which 
while not wholly inedible is usually rejected. The banana is essentially a 
carbohydrate food, the percentage of protein not usually rising above 1.3. 
Nearly all the carbohydrates in the ripe fruit consist of sugars which are pres- 
ent both as reducing and as cane sugars. The average total percentage of 
sugar present in the banana is a little over 20. 

The composition of the banana is shown in the following table which con- 
tains the data of analyses of two samples bought in the open market in 
Washington. 



Sample i, 
Sample 2, 



Edible 
Portion. 



Percent. 
62.10 
64.50 



Solids. 



Percent. 
26.13 
26.24 



Total 
Sugars. 



Percent. 
21.71 
21.76 



i'ROTElN. 



Percent. 
1.21 



Ash. 



Percent. 
.84 



The analytical data were obtained upon the edible portion and not upon 
the whole fruit. 

The bananas which are imported from Jamaica and Central America are 
represented by the analyses given above. They are commonly knov/n as 
the Johnson banana. Smaller fruits with better flavors are grown in Cuba, — 
some of them are of a red color like the oronoco and Colorado. The indiano 
is a large, yellow, angular fruit with a salmon-colored pulp and a rather dis- 
agreeable acid flavor. 

With reference to the banana as a food product it is seen that, including 
the starch and digestible cellulose, it consists of at least 25 percent, in its 
edible portion, of carbohydrates suitable for food purposes. Its low content 
of protein indicates that it is not a well balanced ration, but should be eaten 



348 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

in connection with beans, peas, or other vegetables rich in protein, or with lean 
meat in order to secure a proper quantity of protein in the diet. 

On account of the great abundance of the product and luxuriance of growth 
in the Central American states, it is evident that the banana might become a 
profitable source of industrial alcohol in that locality. 

Cashew (Maranon) {Anacardium occidentale). — The cashew, of which the 
principal habitat is Cuba, is a small, oddly shaped, yellow and red fruit from two 
to three inches long and from ^ to two inches in diameter at the bottom, decreas- 
ing gradually in diameter toward the top. The seed is small and kidney- 
shaped and grows outside of the fruit at the lower end. The seed is regarded as 
poisonous until it has been roasted, due probably to the presence of hydro- 
cyanic acid. After roasting it is regarded as a delectable edible. The meat 
of the seed of the cashew resembles the roasted chestnut, but contains more 
oil. The pulp is of a dull yellow color, is tough and very juicy, with an acid 
astringent flavor and a disagreeable odor. The fruit is not eaten raw but 
chiefly in preserves. The composition of the cashew is shown in the following 
table : 

Composition 0} Edible Portion— Sj.g percent. — 

Solids, 12.84 percent 

Sugar, 6.76 " 

Acid, 31 

Ash, 36 " 

The composition is somewhat like that of the hicaco, but the cashew contains 
a larger proportion of acid and hence is better suited for preserves. The 
sample of cashew preserves examined had the following composition : 

Solids, 71.22 percent 

Sugar, 66.89 " 

Protein, 26 " 

Acidity, 08 " 

Ash, 14 " 

Citrus Fruits. — The term "citrus fruit" is applied to that class of fruits 
represented by the orange, lemon, grape fruit, and lime. In the United 
States extensive areas are devoted to the production of citrus fruits, and it 
is claimed by connoisseurs that some of the best varieties grown anywhere 
in the world are the products of this country. Florida and southern California 
are two localities where the development of the citrus fruit industry has been 
carried to the greatest extent. The phenomenally cold winter which occurred 
in Florida some ten years ago almost ruined the citrus fruit industry in that 
state for the time being. In the reestablishment of it the center of production 
has been extended farther south than it was before. It is believed that at 
the present time the industry has been extended sufficiently far south in the 
Florida peninsula to avoid any repetition of the great disaster which ruined 
the citrus groves in certain portions of the state at the time mentioned. The 



^ 




Drying Figs 

1. SMYRNA 3- ADRIATIC 

2. SMYRNA SECTION 4- ADRIATIC SECTION 

From Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, rSgy 



FIGS. 



349 



climate of southern California is more equable, and no injury has ever been 
experieaced in that location from very low temperature. In Florida the 
oranges are cultivated without irrigation, while in southern California irriga- 
tion is universally practiced. The seasonal conditions are therefore under 
better control in California than in Florida. 

Figs {Ficus carica L.). — The fig is a fruit which is well known in biblical 
and profane history. Together with the grape it is the fruit most often men- 
tioned in the Bible. 

The importance of the fig as a fruit and food is recognized in all the earlier 
writings, both sacred and profane. When dried and pressed into convenient 
forms it is a food which can be easily transported, and makes a ration well 
suited to supply heat and energy, although deficient in nitrogen in so far as a 
complete ration is concerned. The fig tree is extensively cultivated in all 
localities where the temperature permits its growth. Imported cured figs are 
often found badly infested with worms and their excreta, a condition which 
could be easily avoided with proper care. 

The fig tree grows luxuriantly and to a great size in California, and the 
fruit, both fresh and dried, is of superior excellence. A typical illustration 
of a California fig tree is shown in Fig. 51. 

The Smyrna fig has lately been introduced into the southern and western 
part of the United States with great success. It grows especially well in the 
southern part of California and Arizona. The Smyrna fig is one of the 
varieties which requires fertilization of the flower through the mediation of 
an insect. This process is called caprification. Although this variety of 
fig has only been introduced into California to any extent in the last five or 
six years, the growth of this most highly esteemed variety has so increased 
that at the present time the output of California alone amounts to about 
twelve million pounds per annum. The Smyrna and Adriatic figs, used 
largely for drying and preserving purposes, are seen in their natural colors in 
the appended colored plate. 

Composition 0} Fresh Figs {Edible Portion). — 

Water, 79- 1 1 percent 

Protein, 1.52 " 

Sugar, 15.53 " 

Pure ash, 58 " 

Fat, fiber, etc., 3-26 " 

Composition of Dried Figs. — 

Water, 28.78 percent 

Total sugar, 5 1 .43 

Acid as malic, 71 " 

Protein, 3.58 " 

Ether extract, 1.27 " 

Cellulose, etc., 5.29 " 

Crude fiber, 6.19 " 

Ash, 2.75 



350 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS 



The interesting process of caprification is thus described by Professor 
Hugh N. Starnes of the Georgia Experiment Station: 

" In the base or false ovary of the gall flowers, which are merely degenerate 
pistillates, the egg of the Blasfophaga grossonim or fig wasp — a minute in- 
sect — is deposited and develops to maturity. The wingless males emerge 




Fig. 51. — Fig Tree Thirty Feet Uu:h Near Yi-ba, California.— (/'//rt/r;i^;'r7/>/; /^v J7. W. Wiley.) 



first and, with their powerful mandibles, cut into the flowers containing the 
female wasps, partially release them, and impregnate them. The gravid 
females shortly complete the liberating process and, being winged, at once 
seek to escape for the instinctive purpose of laying their eggs. They emerge 
from the eye of the caprifig, after squeezing through the mass of pollen-covered 
anthers protecting the exit, and seek other fruit in which to lay their eggs. 



GiL-^PE FRUIT. 351 

Naturally thcv would enter the nearest capritig in the proper stage of devel- 
opment. But, meanwhile, if the caprifig containing the colony has been 
plucked from its stem and suspended in the branches of an adjacent Smyrna 
tree, the female on emerging forces her way in a fruit of the latter class, losing 
her wings in the process, and at once begins a frantic scramble around the 
interior, searching for the anticipated gall flowers in which to deposit her 
eggs. Failing, necessarily, to tind them, and incapable of again taking flight, 
she finally curls up and dies heartbroken, but not until she and her companions 
have between them ])ollinated e\er}- female flower in the ca\ity with the plenti- 
ful store of pollen conve}-ed from the caprifig — thereby insuring the develop- 
ment of the fruit." 

Grape Fruit (Pomelo) {Citrus dcciimana). — The so-called grape fruit or 
pomelo is one of the largest products of the citrus family and also possesses 
properties which may be regarded as a cross between the lemon and the 
orange. It is more acid than the orange and sweeter than the lemon. This 
fruit is perhaps more highly esteemed than any other citrus \ariety for direct 
edible purposes, forming a breakfast dish which is eaten very extensively 
throughout all parts of the United States b\' those who are able to afford the 
luxury, for such it still is by reason of its high price. Large amounts of grape 
fruit are grown in the United States, though its culture is confined to the 
same localities as are the orange and lemon. 

Composition 0} Grape Fruit {Pomelo). — The composition of the pomelo 
as given for the California product (Station Report, 1892, p. 256) shows this 
fruit to have the following composition: 

Average weight, 357-oo grams 

Rind, 23.50 percent 

Seeds, 3.70 " 

Edible portion, 72.80 " 

Composition of the juice from the edible portion: 

Total solids, 13-20 percent 

Total sugars, . ■. g.50 " 

Acids (as citric), 2.70 " 

Professor Colby says in discussing these analyses that the proportion of 
acid is larger in these samples than the general taste demands. 

Cuban Grape Fruit. — The grape fruit which is grown in Cuba has quite a 
different character. Its flavor is mild, and it is almost devoid of the bitter 
taste which is found in the American product, and which adds greatly to its 
palatable properties when the consumer becomes accustomed to it. 

A marmalade is made from the grape fruit similar in all respects, except 
the peculiar flavor given by the raw material, to that made from oranges. It 
is evident from its high palatable properties and its wholesomeness that grape 



352 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

fruit will become more and more an article of value and be consumed in large 
quantities throughout the country. 

Guava {Psidium Guajava).- — This fruit is grown very extensively in both 
California and Florida, also in Cuba, where a number of varieties grow wild. 
The white guava is a small, round fruit, grayish-white or yellow in color, and 
having an average weight of 1.5 ounces. The pear-shaped fruit, the guava 
of Peru, is about twice the size of the white variety, but otherwise resembles 
it very closely. Both varieties contain large numbers of small seeds scattered 
throughout the yellowish-white pulp. As a rule the guava is not eaten raw, 
but it is a fruit from which some of the most highly prized jelly pastes and 
preserves are made. 

Composition oj the Guava. — The guava contains, in its fresh state, an aver- 
age of a little less than 80 percent of water and a little more than 20 percent 
of solid matter. The solid materials in guavas are quite insoluble in water, 
more than one-half of them not passing into solution. The chief part of 
the soluble constituents of guavas are the sugars, and these exist chiefly in the 
invert state. The total percentage of sugar in guavas in the fresh state aver- 
ages about six, the protein amounts to about one percent, and the ash to a little 
over one-half of one percent. The guava, therefore, is condimental rather 
than nutritive, and for this reason it is not a valuable food product eaten in 
the raw state. 

Guava Preserves. — A large number of preserves are made from the guava, 
and these products are well known and relished throughout the country. 
The preserves are in various forms, being chiefly pastes, marmalades, and 
jellies. These preparations contain the aromas and flavoring qualities of the 
fruit, and when pure contain no added product save sugar. They contain 
from 60 to 75 percent of added sugar. The preserved products of the guava 
are generally packed in wooden boxes, lined with paper, though some are 
packed in glass. The crystallized guava, the guava cream, and the pastes 
contain large quantities of added sugar, namely, about 80 percent. These 
preserves naturally have a very low acid content by reason of the quantity 
of sugar which has been added in their preparation. In this country often 
the whole fruits are preserved in sugar sirup. 

Hicaco (Chrysoba/anus icaco). — The fruit of the hicaco is small and round, 
varying from one to three inches in diameter. The average weight of each fruit 
is about \ oz. The skin is thin and green in color, shading to red on the side 
exposed to the sun. It grows on a small shrub and is sometimes called the 
cocoa plum. The surface is somewhat shrivelled and wrinkled, and the 
seed weighs almost half as much as the whole fruit. The fruit is not eaten 
in a fresh state, but is used for making preserves. It is sweet to the taste and 
has a low acid content. The composition of the fresh fruit is shown by 
the following table: 



LEMONS. 353 

Composition of Edible Portion — 68.g percent. — 

Total solids, i4-2q percent 

Total sugar, 5.18 " 

Protein, 46 " 

Acidity, 10 " 

Ash, 96 " 

These data show that the hicaco is a fruit low in nutritive value, in so far 
as sugar is concerned, low in protein and of a very slight acidity. 

Hicaco Preserves. — A sample of hicaco preserves was found to have the 
following composition: 

Total solids, 65.07 percent 

Sugar, 60.08 " 

Protein, 12 " 

Ash, 14 " 

Acidity, 05 " 

The above data indicate only the change in composition which would come 
from adding the sugar in the process of manufacture. By reason of the low 
acidity of the fruit the sugar in the preserves would, theoretically, be largely 
cane sugar. In the case mentioned, however, one-third of the sugar was 
inverted. WTiether this was accomplished by the action of the acid on the 
sugar during the process of manufacture or by the use of molasses instead 
of sugar in the preserves does not appear. More likely it is due to the 
latter. 

Kumquat {Citrus japonica). — The kumquat is one of the smallest of 
citrus fruits. It stands as one extreme of that important family of which the 
grape fruit or pomelo represents the other. The fruit is oval in shape, about one 
inch in diameter, and is one and one-half inches long. It may be regarded as 
a dwarf orange, and was brought into the United States from Japan, although 
it is a native of China. The name — kumc^uat — is of Chinese origin and is 
intended to mean '' Gold Orange." The kumquat tree, under favorable 
circumstances, reaches a height of 10 or 12 feet and forms a compact, sym- 
metrical, and handsome head. The pulp of the fruit is very tender and 
agreeably acid and the rind is spicy, as is the case with most of the acid fruits. 
It is not only valued as a fruit, but the tree is also highly prized as an ornament. 
Its l^eautifuUy colored fruit, in contrast with its green leaves, presents a most 
agreeable spectacle. It is grown in the United States principally in Florida. 
The composition of the kumquat is practically that of the orange. 

Lemons. — The citrus fruit, next in importance to the orange, if not more 
important, is the lemon {Citrus limonum). This fruit is grown extensively 
in the United States in the same localities that produce the orange, that is, 
chiefly in Florida and southern California. Its method of cultivation, gen- 
eral treatment, time of ripening and harvesting are the same as that of .the 
orange. Its principal difference from the orange is in its greater acidity and 
24 



354 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

in certain peculiarities of its aromatic and oily substances. From the rind 
is produced an essential oil which, while resembling that of the orange in 
general character, has distinct properties which easily discriminate it from 
the orange product. The lemon also has a correspondingly less proportion 
of sugar than the orange. In 22 analyses, of California lemons they were 
found to contain 5.26 percent of acid and only 2.33 percent of sugar. The 
distinct feature of the lemon, therefore, is its acidity. The principal acid 
present in lemons is citric acid, though other organic acids are also found. 
The acids are either free or in combination with a base, the principal base 
being potash. On account of its high acidity and low sugar content the lemon 
is used more as a relish and in the manufacture of acid beverages than 
directly as a food. There are some varieties known as sweet lemons which 
are eaten as oranges or used directly for food purposes, but generally the 
lemon is too sour and acid for consumption in this manner. 

Lime. — A species of citrus fruit which is even more acid than the lemon 
is known as the lime (Citrus hysrix acida). 

Limes are not eaten directly as food on account of their high acidity, but 
their expressed juice is sold throughout the world for beverages and medici- 
nal purposes. The lime also yields an essential oil, which is very similar in 
character to that derived from lemons. In fact the lime may be regarded as 
a very sour lemon, just as the orange may be regarded as a very sweet one. 

AduUeralion oj Lime Juice. — Unfortunately lime juice is offered on the 
market often in entirely spurious forms, that is, a mixture made up with flav- 
oring of an acid character resembling that of the natural juice. The natural 
juice is also frequently adulterated by the addition of preservatives. Among 
these, sulfurous and salicylic acids are perhaps the most frequent. Lime 
juice can be perfectly preserved by sterilization, and there is no necessity for 
the use of preservatives therein. 

In the tropics there is also found a lime of a saccharine character known 
as the sweet lime, but this fruit does not have a very great vogue. 

Mamey Colorado. — This is a tropical fruit which is very extensively 
grown in Cuba, and derives its local name from a very slight outward resem- 
blance to the mammee {Mammea americana). These two fruits, however, 
have no botanical or other relation to each other, nor do they have any internal 
resemblance. The mamey Colorado is chocolate brown in color, oval or 
round in shape, and its average weight is about 1.5 pounds. The skin is 
thick and coarse. The pulp has a yellowish color, varying to a deep scarlet, 
and is slightly fibrous and firm, but mealy and rather dry. It has a sweetish 
taste with very little acid flavor. It is eaten chiefly in the fresh state and is 
also stewed with sugar. The fruit usually contains but one seed, though as 
many as four are sometimes found. The seeds are imbedded in a soft core 



MAMEY DE SANTO DOMIXGO. 355 

and are irregularly oval. The natural season is from December to August. 
These fruits are very largely used for making preserves. 

The composition of the mamey Colorado is as follows: 

Composition oj Edible Portion — 86.10 percent. — 

Solids, 34-OI percent 

Total ash, So " ' 

Acid, 10 " 

Total sugar, 22.05 " 

The analysis shows that the mamey Colorado is a fruit which in its edible 
properties and nutritive value very closely resembles the banana. 

Mamey de Santo Domingo {Mammea a mericana).— This is a fruit 
extensively used in Cuba and other tropical countries. It is of a light brown 
color, from three to ten inches in diameter, and \yeighs sometimes as much as 
I J pounds. The skin is thick and fibrous, the outer surface being toiigh and 
covered with small brown spots. The pulp is dark yellow in color, firm, and 
very juicy. It has a sweet characteristic flavor and a pleasant aromatic 
odor. The seeds sometimes measure three inches in diameter and cling tena- 
ciously to the pulp. It is very commonly eaten raw and is highly esteemed 
for preserving purposes. 

The composition of the mamey de Santo Domingo is shown in the following 
table; 

Composition oj Edible Portioji — do.yo percent. — 

Solids, 14.12 percent 

Total ash, 31 " 

Acids, 42 " 

Protein, 49 " 

Total sugar, 9.47 " 

The above data show that this fruit is very much less sweet and very much 
more acid than the mamey Colorado and for nutritive purposes is of much 
less value, but by reason of its greater acidity and higher flavoring it is more 
suitable for the manufacture of preserves than the fruit resembling it in 
external appearances and name. It is used extensively in the manufacture 
of preserves and marmalades which are so similar in composition as not to 
be distinguished from each other by their chemical analyses. 

The compositions of a preserve known as mamey en almibar and a mar- 
malade known as mermelade de mamey are shown in the following table: 



Substance. 


Solids. 


Total 
Ash. 


.\CIDS. 


p— • sTS. 


Mamey en almibar, 


Percent. 
60.05 
69.74 


Percent. 

■154 
.149 


Percent. 

.194 
.123 


Percent. 

.363 
.269 


Percent. 

57-45 
62.68 


Mermelade de mamey, 



356 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



Mango (Magnijera indica L.). — The mango is a fruit which is highly 
prized throughout the world. It is a native of southern Asia, where it 
has been known from earliest times. In the United States the mango is 




1- U.. 5-'.— j A.MAI 



chiefly grown in Florida as a horticultural crop. The mango is a tree pecu- 
liarly sensitive to frost, and therefore does not grow as far north as oranges. 



ORANGES. 357 

Its profitable cultivation at present is conlineci to the extreme southern part of 
the Florida peninsula. 

The mango is an evergreen tree. In Florida, under favorable conditions 
of growth, it reaches as high as 40 or 50 feet. It makes a tree of graceful ap- 
pearance with a dense, dome-shaped top. The color of the mango fruit is 
varied; it may be red, green, or yellow, or a mixture of these colors. The tree 
and fruit both possess an agreeable odor, and every part of the tree, almost, 
can be of some economic value. The ripe fruit is a delicious dessert and is 
wholesome. It is often recommended for its medicinal properties. The 
rind and fiber, as well as the unripe fruit, are acid and full of tannin, which 
makes them astringent to the taste. ]Mangos may be eaten in the raw state, 
and they are also valued for making preserves, pickles, marmalades, and 
jelly. A very popular sauce known as mango chutney is prepared from 
the mango and is largely used in the United States and England, being mostly 
imported from India. The appearance of the tree is shown in Fig. 52. 

Oranges (Citrus aurantium). — This fruit is characterized by its delightful 
flavor and by the distribution of certain aromatic oils, especially in the rind, 
which give it a peculiar aroma and taste. The orange has a thick yellow 
rind which, while edible, is not usually eaten, but is the source of valuable 
essential oils. A large part of the orange, as far as weight is concerned, is 
not usually eaten; usually from 25 to 40 percent of the weight is in the rind 
or some inedible portion. The ash of the orange is usually less than one-half 
of one percent. The predominant organic acid of the orange is citric, 
although other organic acids are present. The quantity of protein present in 
an orange is very small, usually not exceeding very much a half of one percent. 
The quantity of sugar varies greatly in different samples. It is present both 
as cane sugar or sucrose and as reducing or invert sugar. In the very sweet 
orange the quantity reaches as high as 10 percent or even greater, while 
in the sour orange it is less. The principal food value of the orange, as far 
as nutriment is concerned, is its sugar. The orange, however, has other 
valuable properties, especially from a hygienic standpoint, aside from its 
nutriment. The organic salts which it contains, the organic acids, and other 
condimental material make the orange an exceptionally wholesome fruit, 
exercising a beneficial effect upon the digestive process and especiallv aiding 
in the passage of the undigested food through the alimentarv canal. The 
orange is a fruit which has lasting keeping qualities. It is not unusual to see 
ripe oranges which are edible hanging on the same tree with the blossoms 
which are blooming for the next year's crop. In California and Florida the 
oranges begin to ripen in November and may be continuously harvested 
until the following April, if it be advisable to leave them on the tree for that 
length of time. Owing to the thick and resistant skin of the orange, it can 
be kept for a long time without material deterioration after harvesting, if 



358 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



care be taken to avoid bruising or injuring the fruit in any way while handhng. 
Oranges thus harvested and wrapped in paper and kept at a low temperature 
will keep for weeks and even months, and still be edible and nourishing. 
This property of the orange makes it possible to supply the markets of the 
world practically throughout the entire year with one of the most delicious 
and nutritious of fruits. In former years the orange was regarded as a luxury, 
but at the present time it is a staple article of diet even for people in moderate 
circumstances, and is often eaten by those who are poor. In Fig. 53 is given 
a typical illustration of a California orange grove. 

The culture of the orange has demanded the highest agricultural and 
scientific skill, and perhaps there is no crop produced to which greater attention 




Pig. 53.— An Edge of a California Orange Grovk.— (Bureau of Plant Iiidnsliy.) 



has been paid. In Florida, especially, the oranges are grown on soil which 
is not much more than poor sand, and hence the scientific feeding of the trees, 
that is, the fertilization of the soil in which they grow, is necessary to success. 
As a result of this application of science luxuriant crops of oranges are found 
growing upon sandy soil which without scientific treatment would be almost 
barren. The soils in southern California, on the other hand, are very rich 
in natural plant food, but this does not obviate the necessity of scientific manur- 
ing. Oranges grow throughout the year in tropical and semi-tropical regions. 
It is considered by connoisseurs, however, that the oranges grown in the 
semi-tropical regions, that is far enough north for a little frost to come during 
the winter, but without a sufficient degree of cold to injure the trees, are of 
better quality than those grown in tropical regions where frost is unknown. 



ORANGES, 



359 



The Seedless Orange. — The variety of orange which contains no seed has 
been widely cultivated in the United States, and by reason of the absence of 
seeds is more highly prized by many than the ordinary orange for edible 




Fig. 54.— The Original Skhdm;ss Orange Trkk. — (Cci?<»7cjr Bureau of Plant fndushy.) 



purposes. Since the orange tree has been cuhivated by grafting rather than 
by direct production of the different varieties from the natural seed, it has 



360 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



been possible to secure a fruit without seeds. Whether such an unnatural 
product will continue to maintain its high rank as an edible product remains 
to be seen. The seedless orange tree, from which are descended the greater 
part of these trees in the United States, was secured by ]Mr. William Sanders 
from Bahia. Its present appearance in the greenhouse of the Department 
of Agriculture is shown in Fig. 54. The navel orange is exceedingly beauti- 
ful as it grows upon the tree. A bunch of these oranges growing on the parent 
tree in Washington is shown in Fig. 55. 




Fig. 55.— .a Group of the Washington Navel Oranges on the Trek.— (Courtesy Bureau of 

Plant Industry.) 



Pineapple. — The pineapple is a fruit grown very extensively in tropical 
and also subtropical countries. It is a crop of great importance in Florida. 
The flavor and aroma of the pineapple grown in subtropical countries is 
often preferred to that of the tropical grown fruit. Pineapples grow best 
when sheltered to some extent from the direct rays of the sun. In Florida 
it is planted near live oaks, where a partial shade is secured. It is often 
artificially covered by means of narrow boards placed near together and yet 
leaving abundant space for the sunlight. Sometimes these covered fields 
are two or three acres in extent. In Fig. 56 is given a representation of 



PINEAPPLE. 



^6 1 



the pineapple growing under a covering of this kind in Florida at the Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, Lake City. 

Formerly pineapples were regarded as great luxuries, and often were set 
up in the center of the table as an ornament rather than as a dessert. They 
have now become very common and are frequently used as a dessert, for 
flavoring ice cream, for preserving, and for general use as a fruit. 

Adulteration 0} Pineapples. — The only adulterations which are found in 




Fig. 56.— Covered Pineapple. — (Courtesy of Florida Experiment Station.) 



pineapples are of course in the canned product. Investigations in the Bureau 
of Chemistry show that adulteration is not extensively practiced, unless the 
addition of cane sugar without notice can be so regarded. 

From the point of view of the collection of duties, the addition of cane sugar 
without notice is an adulteration, since under provision of law pineapples 
canned in their own juice pay one rate of duty and when preserved with sugar 
pay another. Inasmuch as the label of a food product should" tell the whole 



362 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



truth concerning it, the addition of cane sugar, without notice to that effect 
upon the label, is calculated to deceive and should not be practiced. There 
is no objection of any kind to the use of cane sugar in the canning of pineapples 
if the label indicates that this has been done. On the other hand there is 
no reason why the addition of sugar should be practiced. The pineapples 
are bought and consumed for their natural flavor, and not on account of the 
added sugar which they may contain. In the canning of pineapples it is 
just as easy to secure complete sterilization in their own juice as it is to secure 
it with the added sirup. In practice, however, it is more convenient after 
filling the cans with the pieces of pines to add a sugar sirup to fill up the spaces 
than to secure sterilization by the application of heat alone, which would not 
cause a sufficient quantity of juice to exude to fill up the interstices of the 
cans, and they, therefore, would be partially empty. 

Canned Pineapples. — There is a very large trade in this country in canned 
pineapples imported from Singapore and the Straits Settlements and the 
Bahamas. The pines are usually canned with the addition of sugar, and those 
that come to our ports are as a rule sweetened only with cane sugar. 

A large number of analyses has been made of these canned pineapples 
in the Bureau of Chemistry and the general data which were secured are 
presented below: 

Canned pineapples from Singapore, average, maximum, and minimum 
composition: 



Solids. 



Sugar. 



Ash. 



Acidity. 



Percent. 

Average, ' 20.15 

Maximum, : 25.30 

Minimum, 18.18 



Percent. 
17.90 
25.10 
14.87 



Percent. 
.46 
.60 
•39 



Percent. 
.28 

•36 
.21 



Percent. 

•30 

•43 
.16 



The above data show that it is possible to compute the average quantity 
of sugar which is added in the preparation of the sample. If we assume in 
round numbers that the natural pine contains 12 percent of sugar, we find 
that approximately eight pounds per hundred of fruit have been added in 
the preparation of the pines from Singapore. 

Below is found the average, maximum, and minimum composition of ten 
samples of canned pineapples from the Straits Settlements: 



Data. 


SOI.IDS. 


Sugar. 


Protein. 


Ash. 


Acidity. 




Percent. 
21.04 
24.28 
17^32 


Percent. ' 
i8.4S 
21.94 

14-54 


Percent. 
•47 
•57 
•39 


Percent. 
.26 

•32 
.22 


Percent. 
.26 




•32 
.17 


Minimum, 







PINEAPPLE. 



363 



These data show that the preparation of the pines in the Straits Settlements 
for shipment in cans is the same as that in Singapore. The average amount 
of sugar added appears to be about one percent greater. 

Average composition of canned pineapples from the Bahamas: 



Data. 



Solids. 



Sugar. 



Ash 



Acidity. 



Percent. 

Average,. ' ^3-7^ 

Maximum, 26.78 

Minimum, 8.54 



Percent. 

10.69 

22.43 

(>-33 



Percent. 


Percent. 


-.34 


•38 


.46 


•50 


.20 


.22 



Percent . 

•57 
1.18 



The above data show that nearly all the canned pineapples coming from 
the Bahamas must be regarded as canned in their natural juice without the 
addition of sugar. Of the whole number of samples examined, only four 
gave any indication of containing added sugar. 

Composition of the Pineapple. — The average composition of twenty-two 
samples of fresh pineapple grown in Florida, as determined in the Bureau 
of Chemistry, is as follows: 

Total solids, 13-85 percent 

Total sugar, 11.69 " 

Protein, 40 " 

Ash, 42 " 

Acidity, * 52 " 



Of the sugars 4.44 percent existed in the form of invert or reducing sugar 
and 6.88 percent as cane sugar. These data show that the nutritive value of a 
pineapple lies chiefly in the sugar which it contains. However, the ethereal 
and aromatic properties of the pineapple give to it its chief value as a food, 
since it is the flavor and aroma rather than the nutriment in the fruit which 
make it valued as a food. These flavors and aromas are due to essential oils 
and ethers or compound ethers, and they exist in such minute quantities as to 
escape ordinary chemical investigation. A study of the details of analyses 
shows that there is a wide variation in the percentage of sugar. In two 
instances the total sugar fell below eight percent, but those evidently 
were green and imperfect samples and were not included in the general 
average. 

The highest quantity of sugar found in any Florida pineapple was 15.28 
percent. The data show that in general it may be said that the Florida pine- 
apple contains nearly 12 percent of its weight of sugar. 

Average Composition oj Cuban Pineapples. — The average composition of 



364 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

10 samples of Cuban pineapples examined in the Bureau of Chemistry is 
shown in the following data: 

Total solids, i4-52 percent 

Sugars, 11.87 " 

Protein, 40 " 

Ash, 35 

Acidity, 56 " 

These data show that the Cuban pineapple is only a trifle sweeter than 
that grown in Florida and has in general the same composition. 

The Florida pineapples when placed on the market have qualities which 
are by most connoisseurs judged to be superior to those of Cuban origin, 
although these qualities are not indicated by any marked difference in the 
analytical results. 

The average composition of Bahama pineapples, examined in the Bureau 
of Chemistry, is given in the following table: 

Total solids, 14-81 percent 

Sugar, 12.22 

Protein, 48 

Ash, 40 " 

Acidity, .77 

The Bahama pineapple, as is seen by the above data, is somewhat sweeter 
than the Florida or Cuban grown fruit and also has a higher acidity. 

Average Composition of Porto Rican Pineapples. — Two samples of Porto 
Rican pines, examined in the Bureau of Chemistry, had the following com- 
position: 

Total solids, i5-9i percent ■ 

Total sugar, 15-36 " 

Protein, 48 

Ash, 37 

Acidity, 72 

The other samples of pines coming ffom Porto Rico were so immature 
that it was found they contained only about one-half the percentage of sugar 
and one-half the total solids of the ripened fruits. They were probably har- 
vested in an immature state in order to withstand the vicissitudes of trans- 
portation. The above data show that the ripe pines of Porto Rico are even 
richer than those of the Bahamas in sugar and nutritive elements. 

The average, maximum, and minimum data for all samples of the fresh 
pines from all countries, examined in the Bureau of Chemistry, show the 
following composition: 



SAPOTA. 



365 



Data. 


SotlDS. 


Sugar. 


Protein. 


Ash. 


Acidity. 


Average, . 


Percent. 
14.17 
18.86 
10.78 


Percent. 

11.90 

15.28 

8.20 


Percent. 

.42 

•57 
.21 


Percent. 
.40 

•55 
•27 


Percent. 
.60 


Maximum, 


•85 
•30 


Minim^um 


• 



In order that some idea might be obtained of the composition of the pines 
grown at Singapore and Nassau, the consuls in those locahties were requested 
to secure the preservation of the pines by sterihzation without the addition 
of any substance, that is, their preservation in their natural juice. In this 
condition the fruit of the pine, naturally preserved, was sent to the Bureau 
of Chemistry and subjected to analysis with the following average results: 

Average Composition (ten samples from Singapore). — 

Solids, : 1330 percent 

Sugars, 11-73 " 

Protein, 48 " 

Ash, 38 

Acidity, 39 " 

Average Composition (two samples from Nassau) — ■ 

Solids, 13-18 percent 

Sugars, 10.86 " 

Protein, 40 " 

Ash, 41 " 

Acidity, 58 " 

The above data show that the pineapples grown in Singapore and Nassau 
are not notably different in composition from those grown in Florida, Cuba, 
and Jamaica. All the data indicate that the pineapples grown in different 
parts of the world have practically the same composition at the same state 
of maturity. 

Sapota (Sapodilla) {Sapota za pot ilia (Jacq.) Coville). — This is a tropical 
fruit which is grown in large quantities in Cuba, where two varieties are known, 
differing only in shape, one being round and the other oval. In the Havana 
markets the latter variety is incorrectly known as the nispero. This name, how- 
ever, is properly applied to the fruit loquat (Eriobotrya japonica). The fruit is 
small, weighing usually under two ounces, has a brown or brownish-green 
color and in general appearance resembles a smooth, dark potato. The skin 
is thick and coarse in texture, the pulp is yellowish-brown in color, granular 
in texture, and rich in juice. The odor is characteristic, and the taste is quite 
sweet. The seeds number from one to five and are contained in a soft open 
core, — they are of a brownish-black color with a single white stripe, and 
measure from three-quarters to one inch in length. The fruit comes into use 
about the first of April and lasts until the end of summer. It is a very popular 
fruit in summer and deserves more attention in the various markets than 



366 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



it has yet received. The sap of tlie sapota tree and juice of the green fruit 
when concentrated furnish the material known as chicle, from which chew- 
ing-gum is made. The compositions of the round and long sapota and the 
natural preserved pulp of the sapota are given in the following table: 
Composition oj Edible Portion. — 



Sample. 



Round sapota, 

Long sapota, 

Natural sapota preserves, 



Edible 
Portion. 



Composition of Edible Portion. 



Solids. 



Percent. 
76.40 
80.90 



Percent. 
23.07 
21.01 
22.95 



Total 
ash. 



Percent. 
0.384 

■555 
•399 



Acids. 



Percent. 

0.132 

.162 

.086 



Protein. 



Percent. 

0-350 
.650 
.231 



Total 
sugar. 



Percent. 
10.815 
12.76 
11.30 



The sapota is also used in the manufacture of preserves by boiling it with 
sugar in the usual way. The analyses show that the sapota is a fruit which 
is principally valuable as a carbohydrate food. It has, however, very little 
acid, and is a much sweeter fruit than the anona and, therefore, more pleasant 
to the taste. 

Star-apple (Cainito) (Chrysophyllum cainito). — The star-apple is one 
of the less important fruits which abound in Cuba. It is not very extensively 
used, but medicinal properties are attributed to it. Three different varieties 
are sold in the Havana markets, — one of a white color and two purple. The 
first attains the size of a small apple, approaching about seven ounces in 
weight. There are two kinds of meat in the pulp ; the outer portion is a white, 
gelatinous matter which contains the small black seed and is really the 
edible portion, and constitutes about one-third the weight of the fruit. The 
outer fibrous and purple portion of the flesh is inedible. The inner pulp 
has a sweet characteristic flavor and is eaten raw. No preserves were found 
made of this in Cuban markets. The composition of the white star-apple 
is shown in the following table: 

Composition oj Edible Portion — 41.80 percent. — 

Solids, 14-23 percent 

Sugar, 7.91 " 

Protein, 67 " 

Ash, 35 " 

Acidity, 05 " 

These data show that the fruit is not of a very high nutritive order, and 
on account of its low acidity it is not suitable for the making of preserves. 

Tamarind (Tamarindiis Indica). — This fruit belongs to the leguminous 
family and forms a dark brown pod from one to six inches in length and from 
three-fourths of an inch to one inch in width. The rind is thin and very brittle. 



MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF TROPICAL FRUITS. 367 

Within the pod is found a dark-colored pasty material, closely attached to the 
seed sacks and joined to the stem of the pod by coarse fibers. This pasty 
material constitutes the edible portion of the fruit and has a very sour 
taste which serves to mask the large amount of sugar, sometimes as much as 
30 percent, which it contains. The tamarind is remarkable as having the 
highest content both of acid and sugar of any of the edible fruits which are 
in common use. It contains more acid, for instance, than the sourest lime 
and more sugar than the sweetest fruit. The tamarind is not verv largely 
used directly for edible purposes but is a component of man^' refreshing 
summer beverages and is used for flavoring other products. It has mild 
purgative properties, and hence its intermittent use in small quantities 
tends to keep in proper regulation the mechanical movements which are 
so necessary to normal digestion. 
Composition of the Tamarind. — 

Water, 47. 47 percent 

Acid, 6.03 " 

Sugar, 31.4^ 

Protein, 1.36 

Ash, 1.56 

The above data show that the tamarind is essentially of a carbohydrate 
nature, its chief food value being in the sugar which it contains. On account 
of its high acidity very little of the sugar which is present is in the form of 
sucrose or cane sugar, but is mostly in an invert condition. 

Preparation oj Tamarinds. — Tamarinds are also utilized quite extensively in 
the form of tamarind paste which is made up chiefly by the addition of 
cane sugar to the pulp; as much as 75 percent of sugar is often added in 
the making of this product. Another form of preparation is called tamarind 
pulp, which has practically the same composition as the paste. These two 
bodies may be called tamarind preserves. The proportion of pulp to added 
sugar is about as 20 to 80. 

Mineral Constituents of Tropical Fruits. — The mineral content of the 
edible portions of fruits is important, both from a dietetic and chemical point 
of view. 

The mineral substances in fruits not only add to their palatability but also 
have important functions in digestion and assimilation. The lime and phos- 
phoric acid which the ash of fruits contain are foods that nourish certain 
tissues of the body, such as the bones. The other mineral ingredients of 
fruits take an active part in the circulation of the fluids of the body. Since 
the modern development of physiological chemistry, what is known as osmotic 
force, or the power that causes solutions to pass through membranes, is be- 
lieved to be due largely to the mineral constituents of the juices of the body. 
These mineral constituents are therefore necessary in the food. The following 



368 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



table gives the total quantity of ash in the edible portion of the tropical fruits 
named, together with the composition of the ash in respect of its most impor- 
tant constituents (Bulletin 87, Bureau of Chemistry): 



ANALYSES OF THE ASH OF THE EDIBLE PORTION OF THE 
SEVERAL FRUITS. 



Description of Sample. 



Total 

Ash. 



Orange (china), . . . . 
Orange (rough skin) 

Orange (sour), 

Grape fruit, 

Lime, 

Sweet lemon, , 

Tamarind, , 

Guava, 

Banana (nine), . , 

Banana (oronoco), . 
Banana (colorado),. 
Mango (French), . . 
Mango (Filipino),.. 

Manga, 

Guanabana, 

.Anona, 

Chirimoya, .... . 

Sapota, 

Mamey (colorado),. 

Do., 

Hicaco, 

Caimito, 

Pineapple, 

Do., 



Per- 
cent. 



Silica 
(SiOa). 



Per- 
cent. 



15 



Potash 
(K2O). 



Lime 
(CaO). 



Per- 
cent. 

40.66 
49-15 
45-09 
44.19 
43.01 
54-35 

55-00 
46.46 

52-41 

51-47 

47-37 
51-79 
49-37 
48.93 
47.27 

49-73 
43-13 
50-57 
48.20 

35-15 
54-75 
59.18 

57-13 



Per- 
cent. 

10.26 
2.62 
7-95 

7-34 
7.84 
4.29 
.68 
2.48 

•95 
1.02 

•37 
6.38 

1^74 
2.38 

•44 

.81 

2.21 

7^49 
1.38 

1-73 
5^84 
1-31 
9-44 
4.80 



Mag- 
nesia 
(MgO). 



Ferric 

OxiD 

(FezOs) 



Per- 
cent. 

5-27 
I.41 
2.17 

3-92 
2.36 
1.08 
2.19 
1.64 
.42 
1.90 

•65 
1.62 

3-25 

2.17 
2.07 
.66 
2.83 
1.36 
3-35 
4-51 

5-52 
3-44 



Per- 
cent. 

1.09 

4-51 
2.40 
1.28 



Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 
(P2O5). 



Per- 
cent. 

8.56 
7.42 
8.70 

11.09 
8.45 
9-83 
4-99 
8.29 

10.36 
S.16 

3^25 
6.49 
9.04 
5-57 
9-15 
13^63 
6-57 
2.74 
4.90 
9.66 

3-09 

11.00 

6.51 

4.29 



Sul- 
furic 
Acid 
(SO3). 



Per- 
cent. 

2.84 
3-42 
2.72 

3-39 
2.62 
4.09 
1.40 

3^58 
2.36 

3^32 
2.77 

3^67 
4.88 

3-84 
4-54 
3-19 
4-49 
4-55 
3-54 
3-80 

4-77 
5-50 
3-04 
3^65 



Chlo- 

RIN 
(CI). 



Per- 
cent. , 

2.44 
1.50 

.98 
1.38 
4.07 
1.32 

.48 

5-33 
6-59 
8.48 

7-63 
3.88 
1.56 
4.20 
3-40 

3^5 1 

7.40 

17.41 

17-34 

16.00 

18.62 

9.46 

3.22 

4.08 



The above data show that the percentage of ash in the edible portion of 
tropical fruits is never very high. In only three instances in the above table 
does it exceed one percent and in two of those only slightly. The principal 
mineral constituent is potash, which in round numbers may be said to constitute 
one-half of the total ash. Of the acid constituents phosphoric acid is the most 
important. In four cases the amount of phosphoric acid is greater than 
10 percent of the total weight of the ash. The proportion of sulfuric acid 
in the ash is quite constant, while the amount of chlorin varies from less than 
one-half of one percent to more than 18 percent. 

In this case of high ash there is a low content of phosphoric acid, which 
leads to the supposition that the chlorin is partially or wholly combined with 
sodium and potassium. In addition to the elements mentioned above the 

* 2.88 percent sand. 



SUGAR AND ACID IN" FRUIT. . 369 

ash of edible fruits often contains notable quantities of silica and sometimes 
considerable quantities of sand, added accidentally or by the collection of 
dust. The ash of fruit also quite universally contains iron. In some cases 
the quantity of iron amounts to as much as four percent of the total weight of 
the ash. The data in the above table are calculated on the percentage of total 
ash and not on the percentage of pure ash, that is, ash deprived of its carbon, 
sand, and carbonic acid. 

There are some peculiarities in the composition of the ash of tropical fruits 
to which attention may be called. The citrus fruits contain somewhat larger 
amounts of lime and iron than ordinary fruits. The ash of the tamarind 
contains large quantities of silica. The ash of the banana has a low content 
of Hme and magnesia and a high content of chlorin. Attention is also called 
to the fact that in the ordinary combustion of an organic substance to secure 
the mineral matter notable cjuantities of the phosphoric acid and chlorin con- 
tained may be lost. Therefore, the data for phosphoric acid and for chlorin 
are probably lower than would be the case if all of these substances present 
in the fruit had been secured in the ash. The ash of pineapples is not peculiar 
in any respect, nor does it contain any marked amount of a constituent bv 
which it can be identified. The pineapple, as is seen, contains slightly more 
potash than the other tropical fruits. 

Sugar and Acid in Fruit. 

The palatable quality of fruit depends largely upon the aromatic substances 
which they contain in the form of essential oils, esters, and ethers, and espe- 
cially upon their sugar and acid content. The sweet taste of sugar in fruits 
and also often in nuts is modified and reheved bv the acid or astringent mate- 
rials, chiefly tannin, with which it is associated. In the analyses indicating 
the composition of fruits and of nuts and also of vegetables the sugar has not 
always been given separately, but as one member of a group consisting of 
sugar, starch, and cellulose materials soluble in weak acid and alkalies, and 
for this reason deemed to be digestible. ' It seems advisable to supplement 
this information with a special table giving the average quantity of sugar and 
acid found in some of the principal fruits. It must not be forgotten that in 
individual cases the quantity of sugar and acid may vary largely from the 
average, but the following data may be regarded as expressing very accurately 
the average content of sugar and acid in the common fruits. 

Sugar. Acid. 

Percent. Percoii. 

Apples, Rhode Island Greening, io-95 .70 as malic 

Wincsap, i i.q5 -5° " " 

" Northern Spy, 11.80 -70" " 

Apricots, fresh, 11. 01 1.15 " " 

" dried, 20.50 2.52" " 

Bananas, 20.28 .30 " sulfuric 

25 



370 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

SUGAR. ACID. 

Percent. Percent. 

Blackberries, 5-78 -77 as malic 

Cranberries, 1.52 2.34" 

Currants, 6.70 2.24" " 

Grapes, 7.90-26.40 .59 "tartaric 

Lemons, 37 5-39 " "trie 

Oranges, 5-65 i-35 " " 

Peaches, 7-88 .56 " sulfuric 

Pears, 9-ii .19 "malic 

Pineapples, 1 1.50 -60 " sulfuric 

Plums, ■ 1471 -77 " malic 

Prunes, 16.11 .32" " 

Raspberries, 5-33 1.48" 

Strawberries, 6.24 i.io 

In the above data the acidity is determined as malic acid in apples, black- 
berries, and strawberries, in which the predominant acid is malic. In cran- 
berries one of the acids is benzoic, amounting sometimes to as much as 0.05 
percent, in grapes tartaric, in lemons and oranges citric. In the other fruits 
where the character of the organic acid is not distinctly of one kind, the total 
organic acid is estimated as sulfuric acid (SO3), not meaning by that, however, 
that the acids are present in the form of sulfuric acid but merely that their 
quantity was measured in terms of sulfuric acid. 

Canned Fruits. 

The industry devoted to canning fruits is of less importance in the United 
States than that identified with canned vegetables. Practically, nevertheless, 
every fruit which has been produced in this country has become a commercial 
article in the form of canned goods. With the exception of the method of 
preparation, the process of canning and other treatments are essentially the 
same as that of vegetables and therefore dees not warrant any further descrip- 
tion. 

In the following data are found a brief description and the composition of the 
leading varieties' of canned fruit: 

Canned Cherries. — Cherries are one of the fruits which are valued for 
canning purposes. The pits may or may not be removed, according to the 
desire of the manufacturer and the demand of the consumer. The galvanic 
action which the cherry juice sets up on the tin plate tends to bleach the nat- 
ural color of the cherry, and this action can be avoided by coating the inte- 
rior of the can Avith a gum or some similar substance which entirely protects 
the metallic surface from contact with the juice of the fruit. When treated 
in this way the natural color of the cherry is preserved for a reasonable 
length of time. 

Adulteration of Canned Cherries. — The only adulteration of canned cherries 
which is of any consequence is that which relates to artificial coloring. By 
reason of the tendency to bleach the color, mentioned above, it has been quite 
customary to add an artificial color to the cherry so that the red color may 



CANNED PEACHES. 37 1 

be preserved. Coal tar dyes, under various names, and an animal dyC; 
cochineal, have been used for this purpose. The practice of artificial coloring 
is reprehensible and may, in the case of some colors, be harmful to health. 
By observing the precautions already mentioned, the natural color of the 
cherry may be preserved without artificial color, and in general this is desir- 
able. The consumer should at all times demand canned cherries which have 
not been artificially colored. 

Maraschino Cherries. — A very common method of treating cherries is to 
bleach them in a brine of common salt and sulfurous acid until all the natural 
color has disappeared. The cherries are then thoroughly washed for the re- 
moval of the salt and sulfurous acid and at the same time the juice and soluble 
portions of the cherry are removed, so that at the end of the washing there 
is little left but the cellular structure. The cherries are then saturated with 
sugar or sugar and gliicose and colored a deep artificial red by coal tar dye 
or cochineal. If the natural flavor of cherries has been destroyed by the 
bleaching an artificial flavor is often added. The product is a cherry of an 
even deep red tint, more or less sweet, according to the use of greater or less 
quantities of sugar or glucose, and having a flavor of almond oil. When 
cherries of this kind are preserved in a solution of alcohol, flavored or un flavored, 
they are called maraschino cherries. The name is taken from a kind of cherry 
first used in making the product. They are used to a very large extent with 
certain beverages such as cocktails, soda water, mint juleps, etc., and also 
in ice cream and other preparations for the table. Little can be said in praise 
either of the taste or wholesomeness of these preparations and they are valu- 
able chiefly for their supposed attractive appearance. The offense which is 
committed against the aesthetic taste of the individual in the preparation of 
such a product probably offsets any good effect which comes from attractive- 
ness or ornamentation. The product cannot be regarded in any sense as 
resembhng even in color the natural fruit, since practically the whole of the 
natural fruit, except its cellular structure, has been withdrawn and artificial 
substances substituted in place thereof. 

Canned Peaches. — A great industry in this country is the canning of 
peaches. Some of the finest and most perfect varieties are used for this 
purpose. Peaches may be canned whole or by slicing in half or quarters and 
removing the pit. The principles of sterilization are not different from 
those which have already been described. Since the peach is a fruit which 
decay's easily and is thus difficult of transportation, the establishment cf 
canning factories in the vicinity of large peach orchards renders it possible 
to preserve this delicate fruit in a condition practically as good as that of the 
natural article, and thus makes it accessible to the people in all parts of the 
country at all seasons of the year. 

Adulteration of- Canned Peaches. — Fortunately in this case there is no 



372 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

record of adulterations which is of any consequence. The perfection of the 
method of sterilization has rendered it unnecessary to make further use of 
antiseptics for canned peaches. The use of the artificial sweetening agent, 
saccharin, is almost unknown and is about the only adulteration which at 
the present time can be practiced without easy detection. It may be con- 
fidently stated that the consumer can rely, with a fair degree of assurance, 
upon the purity of the product which is taken from the can. The only real 
danger is in the action of the fruit juice upon the imperfect tin plate, and this 
is a danger which probably will soon pass away, since there is a tendency 
manifested now to so protect the tin by a varnish of some kind as to render it 
impossible for any electric action to take place which impairs the color or 
flavor of the fruit and also to exclude the poisonous salts of tin and lead from 
the contents of the can. 

Adulteration of Canned Fruit. — Artificial coloring: The principal 
adulteration of canned fruit is that due to artificial coloring. There is, perhaps, 
no other form of adulteration which has so little excuse. It only needs a 
cursory observation of the fruits of Nature to show that even in the same 
varieties they differ to a vast degree in natural tint. Bright colors are especially 
prized in fruits. For instance, the yellow of the peach, the red of the cherry, 
the purple of the plum, etc. The object of artificial coloring is to make all 
kinds and varieties of these fruits imitate those of naturally rich color. Its 
sole purpose is deception, since it can add nothing whatever to the nutritive 
value. The claim that it adds to the dietetic value of the fruit, as in other 
cases of the same kind of argument, is plainly fallacious. The very moment 
the consumer realizes he is eating an artificially tinted fruit, if he has a tem- 
perament that would make him susceptible to suggestion at all he becomes 
aware of the effort made to deceive him. Such artificially colored foods, thus, 
instead of tasting better than they otherwise would, have a worse taste due 
to the feeling of antipath\- excited by their presence. Hence there can be no 
excuse, under any circumstances, for the addition of artificial colors to food 
products of this kind, or in fact, of any kind except those which are purely syn- 
thetic and have no relation in composition or in quality to a natural product. 
It is a matte- of congratulation to know that the addition of artificial color to 
canned fruits is practically a thing of the past. 

Another form of adulteration, which fortunately is seldom practiced in fruit, 
is one which has already been described in sufficient detail, that is, the addition 
of saccharin, a substance which has even less place in fruits than in vege- 
tables. The addition of a non-sugar, such as saccharin, with an intensely 
sweet taste for the purpose of inducing the consumer to believe that the ar- 
ticle is a natural sweet product, is an adulteration of the most reprehensible 
type, to say nothing of the evil effects of the adulterant employed upon 
health. The addition of spices and other condimental substances to fruit 



COMPOSITION OF FRUIT SIRUP. 



373 



products cannot be regarded as an adulteration, because they reveal their own 
presence and are not added for the purpose of imitation or deception. 
As has been mentioned above, the manufacturer would save all criticism in 
such cases by a plain statement upon the label of the nature of the substance 
added. 

Canned fruits properly preserved retain their natural aroma and flavor 
better than any other form of canned food and deserve the high estimation 
in which they are held by the consumer. The time is now rapidly approaching 
when all such goods will be free of any imitation or adulteration, and this 
will add greatly to their value in the markets of the country. The consumer 
will then only need to have the date of preservation marked on the can to 
be fully protected. 

Fruit Sirups. 

The expressed juice of fruits mixed with the proper proportion of sugar 
produces an important article of commerce known as fruit sirup. These 
fruit sirups are used principally in the preparation of cooling, non-alcoholic 
beverages such as are drunk at the "soda fountains" so-called in the United 
States. In the preparation of fruit sirups only the choicest and best fruits 
are to be used. The juice, after expression, is properly freed from suspended 
matter by filtration or sedimentation and is brought to a proper consistence 
by mixing at once with pure sugar. When it is used as soon as prepared no 
further precaution in regard to its [)reservation is necessary, since juice pre- 
pared in this way and kept in an ice-box will keep several days without fer- 
menting. When manufactured on a large scale for commercial purposes it 
becomes necessary to prepare these sirups in some more permanent form. 
To this end they are subjected to the usual process of pasteurization. On 
account of their liquid condition, sterilization, that is, the use of a temperature 
of boiling water, is rarely necessary. If, on pasteurization, a precipitate is 
formed in these sirups, they should be heated to the temperature of pasteuriza- 
tion previous to the final processing and any deposited matter be separated 
by filtration or deposit. The sirup thus clarified is placed in bottles or separate 
containers and subjected to the pasteurizing process for a sufficient length 
of time, and is then ready for the market. These pasteurized sirups, if 
stored in a cool place, will keep almost indefinitely. In all cases where pas- 
teurization is practiced at a very low temperature it is necessary to keep the 
product at a low temperature, since, as is well known, pasteurization does 
not kill all the spores, but does act with deadly effect upon the yeasts which 
produce alcoholic fermentation. Fresh sirups thus prepared and pasteur- 
ized are wholesome and palatable and are unobjectionable. 

Naturally the principal added constituent of fruit sirup is the sugar, the 
other constituents corresponding to those of the juice from which the sirup is 



374 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

made. In other words the natural sugar and that added make up practically 
the total solids of these products. 

Adulteration of Fruit Sirup. — Fruit sirups have been extensively and 
unnecessarily adulterated. The principal adulteration is the omission of 
the pasteurization process and the preserving of the fruit juice by means 
of an antiseptic. The two antiseptics which have been most commonly 
employed for this purpose are salicylic and benzoic acids. At the present 
time, by reason of prohibitive legislation in respect of salicylic acid, benzoic 
acid or its compounds are quite universally employed. These antiseptics 
are injurious to health and even in small quantities cannot fail to have some 
deleterious effect upon the system. As they are not necessary in the preser- 
vation of fruit sirups, they should be rigidly excluded therefrom. In justice 
to those who use antiseptics of this kind it is said that, as a rule, they frankly 
admit that these sirups can be preserved by sterilization, but that when con- 
sumed they are used only in small quantities, and when the air has access to 
the remaining portion fermentation is set up. To this the answer may be 
made that if unstoppered and used under proper conditions to avoid the 
admission of germs, and if kept on ice or in a cool place, fermentation will 
not set up for several days, during which time opportunity will be had for 
disposing of the contents of the bottle. It does not appear that there is 
any convincing reason to warrant the continuance of the use of preservatives 
in this kind of products. 

Imitation Fruit Sirups. — By far the most general adulteration of fruit 
sirups is that of the imitations thereof, pure and simple, by synthetic products, 
The flavors which give to fruits their character and aroma are chemical com- 
pounds produced by Nature and are chiefly of the nature of a volatile oil or 
compound ether. Of these flavors, the compound ethers especially are 
readily produced by purely synthetic processes. It is possible, therefore, 
for the chemist to make an approximate imitation of the natural fruit flavor. 
No difference how great his skill, however, or the skill of the mixer, there is 
always a gustatory and hygienic difference between the synthetic and the 
natural product, and the natural product always has the advantage of the 
difference. While I do not go so far as to say that synthetic flavors or sirups 
should be excluded in the preparation of non-alcoholic beverages, I do say 
with emphasis that they should never be used, except with notificaton to the 
consumer, and never, under any circumstance, if they contain any ingredient 
which is prejudicial to health. 

One of the principal arguments which has been made against the enactment 
of the pure food bill has been that it would exclude from the market these 
synthetic products. At least let them be sold under their proper designations. 
A law which requires plain and honest branding can hardly be objected to 
on any ground whatever. 



selection of the fruit. 375 

Jams, Jellies, and Preserves. 

The preparation of various fruits or fruit juices with sugar is an important 
industry both for domestic purposes and for commerce in the United States. 
When the fleshy portion of the fruit is treated with sugar sirup and boiled, it 
produces the product known as preserves. When a fruit is reduced to a 
pulp and treated with sugar sirup and boiled, it makes a product known as 
jam. When the fruit juice itself is treated wath sugar and boiled, it forms a 
product known as jelly. The above are general definitions of three important 
classes of fruit products, though it is not intended by any means in the defini- 
tions to describe the details of preparation. These vary greatly in respect 
of the method of preparation, the fruit, the quantity of sugar used, the length 
of time the boiling is continued, and the consistency of the final product. 
These definitions merely outline the three distinct classes of products which 
are made from fruits. 

Selection of the Fruit. — In the selection of the fruit for making these 
sweet products it is highly important that only the very best quality should 
be used. The fruit should be of a proper degree of maturity, and yet not 
overripe. The practice of using immature, waste, or partially deformed or 
decayed fruit for the purposes named cannot be too strongly condemned. 
The great advantage of preparing these products at the home consists in the 
fact that the character of the material used is under the immediate supervision 
of the housewife. In large factories where no official inspection is exercised 
it is possible that any kind of fruit or any portion of the fruit may be devoted 
to the purpose. All deteriorated raw material should be rigidly excluded 
from the factory. Various fruits are utilized in different manners in the 
preparation of the above-named products. Large fruits with tough skins, 
such as apples, peaches, and pears, are pared, the cores removed, and all 
decayed or infected portions cut away, and the clean, fresh, fleshy portion 
of the fruit used for manufacturing purposes. Small fruits, such as berries, 
after the exclusion of all dirt, immature or imperfect samples, and the removal 
of the stem, are used in the whole state for the purposes named. 

It would be manifestly impracticable, as a rule, to remove even the seeds 
of small fruits, except where jelly is to be manufactured. The fruits, having 
been properly prepared, are mixed with sugar or thick sugar sirup and sub- 
jected to heat for two purposes. The first purpose of heat is to sterilize com- 
pletely the material so that no bacteria, germs, or spores may be left alive 
in the finished product. The second purpose of heating is to concentrate 
the material to a proper consistence and to thoroughly saturate all portions 
with sugar sirup. In.cidentally, the heating also by the combined action of 
temperature and free acids in the fruit inverts a large quantity of the cane 
sugar that is used and thus prevents the finished product from granulating. 
The crystallization of the sugar in these bodies renders them very much 



376 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



less desirable and less suitable for preserving. For this reason, among others, 
the precaution mentioned, namely, that the fruit should not be overripe, should 
be observed. It has been seen that overripe fruit diminishes in acidity, and 
hence it is less suitable for converting the cane sugar than fruit just short 
of complete maturity. For this reason, too, the more strongly acid fruits are 
better suited for making these sweetened products than those in which the 
acidity is less strongly developed. 

Jams. — As has already been said, jams differ from jellies in that they 
contain not only the juice of the fruit but the whole pulp of the fruit or the 
whole fruit. The methods of preparation in effect produce the same changes 
upon the sugars that are produced by the fruit juice. The fruit after proper 
comminution is boiled with large quantities of sugar a sufficient length of 
time to reduce the fruit flesh to a pulp and to invert more or less of the sugar 
which is used. The insoluble matter which jam contains consists chiefly of 
the cellulose and pectose matter in the fruit, together with the seeds of the 
small fruit. The various soHds are made up of the solid bodies in the fruits, 
including the sugars which are added. The character of the ash of the jams 
is a good indication whether or not they are pure, that, is, made out of sugar 
and fruit only. While it is true that the ash of fruit varies, it is also true that 
the real ash of fruit has certain characteristics in regard to alkalinity which 
are not possessed by the ash of adulterated fruit products. For the sake of 
convenience and reference it is seen advisable to append a table showing the 
composition of the ash of some of the fresh fruits (Bulletin 66, Bureau of 
Chemistry). 



Fruit. 



'Pure Ash 



K2O. 

Potash. 



Na^O. 

Soda. 



CaO. 

Lime. 



P205. 


SO3. 


Phosphoric 


Sulfuric 


Acid. 


Acid. 


Percent. 


Percent. 


12.83 


4.62 


13.OQ 


2.63 


1.62 


2.32 


I5-II 


5-83 


12.76 


3-90 


21.27 


4.28 


11.09 


2.84 


12.37 


S-2S 


14.08 


2.68 



CI. 
Chlorin. 



Apple, . . 
Apricots, 
Banana,. 
Cherries, 

Figs, 

Grapes, . 
Lemons, . 
Oranges, 
Prunes, . 



Percent. 

0.264 

.508 

1.078 

0.440 

.682 

.500 

.526 

•432 



Percent. 

55-21 
59-36 
63.06 

57-67 
57-i6 

50.95 
48.26 

48.94 
63-83 



Percent. 
11.69 
10.26 

2-34 
6.80 
2.38 
6.32 
1.76 
2.50 
2.65 



Percent. 
4-79 

3-17 

.86 

4.20 

10.90 

4-96 

24.87 

22.71 

4.66 



Percent. 
0.83 

45 
93 
83 
05 
54 
39 
92 

34 



From the above table it is seen that there is not a very large percentage of 
sulfuric acid in the natural ash of fruits, and very little chlorin, with the excep- 
tion of the banana, in which the ash is principally potassium chlorid. Since 
the ash of glucose, as it is made at the present time, consists almost entirely 
of sulfates and chlorids, any considerable increase of these ingredients of an 
ash over the normal may be regarded as an indication that the fruit product 
from which the ash is obtained contains added glucose. Inasmuch as there 



JAMS. 



377 



are chemical and physical methods of detecting glucose which are entirely 
reliable, the utihty of the composition of ash for this purpose is rather con- 
firmatory than otherwise. Since the added sugar is the chief constituent 
of jams there is little difference in other respects in the composition of jams 
made from different fruits, as will be seen by the table of analysis given below: 



Description. 



Jams. 

Apple, 

Blackberry 

Grape, 

Orange,. .. 

Pear, 

Peach, 

Pineapple,, 
Plum, 



Total 
Solids. 



Percent. 
63.22 

55-42 
56.64 
80.52 
61.52 
65-65 
73-92 
50-43 



Acidity. 



Percent. 

0.282 
.851 
•744 

•433 
.163 
.500 

•314 
1. 012 



Reducing 
Sugar. 



Percent. 

25-52 
18.77 

33-44 
13.61 
13.20 
36.48 
14.05 
28.29 



Cane 
Sugar. 



Percent. 
29.11 
29.00 

54-23 
33-74 
23.16 
46.40 
9.70 



Total 
Sugar. 



Percent. 
54-63 
47-77 
44-77 
67.84 
46.94 

59-64 
60.45 

37-99 



The characteristics of fruit which give the special flavors to the jams are 
imparted by constituents such as ethers, essential oils, and other aromatic 
substances, together with the free acids which are present in such quantities 
as not to be susceptible of easy quantitative determination by chemical means. 
The relation which exists between the cane sugar and the invert sugar is not a 
safe index of the method of preparation, but is rather an indication of the 
excess or deficiency of the acid in the fruit employed. The greater the quantitv 
of active acids, other things being equal, the larger the quantity of inverted 
sugar and the smaller the quantity of cane sugar in the finished product. 

In the following table is given the composition of a number of jams made 
in the laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry. These analyses are selected 
from a great many which are available because the character and amount 
of sugar in the composition of the jam were carefully controlled, and thus the 
chemical data afford a base of direct comparison. 



20446 
20414 

20445 
20416 

20443 

20448 
20142 
20421 
20423 



Description of 
Sample. 



Apple (fall pippin) . . 

Blackberry 

Grape (fox) . . . . 
Grape (Ives seedling) 
Orange ( Florida na- 
vel) 

Pear (Bartlett) . 
Pineapple . . . 
Plum (damson) 
Plum (wild fox) 



P.ct. 

63.22 
5542 
61.80 
56.64 

80.52 
61.52 
73-92 
50.43 
62.10 



P.d. 
0.20 

.48 
.19 



•44 
.28 
-30 
•54 
.46 



^ 4. 

Wo" 


-^ 




vO 


f^K 


X 


B< 


5, 






H 




►J !ii 


H 




H 


S^ 


OS 


P.ct. 


P.ct. 


0.282 


0-175 


.851 


■737 


.698 


.200 


■744 


•525 


■433 


•944 


.163 


.312 


•315 


.312 


1. 102 


■525 


1^355 


.212 



Sugars. 



P.ct. 

25-52 
1S.77 
50.06 
33-44 

13.61 
13.20 
14.05 
2S.29 
28.7S 



P.ct. 

51-31 
43-99 
54-21 
42-45 

69-13 
46.52 
60.20 

37-75 
47.86 



P.ct. 
29.11 
29.00 
3-70 
11-33 

54-23 
33-74 
46.40 
9.70 
23.26 



Mo 

3 1; 



P.ct. 

43.22 
34.08 
92-96 
73-38 

2T-55 

18.87 

22.90 

74-42 

53-43 



Polarizations. 



u 


U 


00 




^ 




a 


13 
















> 


a 




°v. 


°V. 


-L26.3 


-13.0 


■4-24.6 


— 14.6 


— 9.0 


— 14.0 


+ 3-5 


— 11.8 


+55-9 


—17-5 


+32-3 


—13.2 


+.52-3 


—10.3 


+ 3-1 


— 10. 


+ 13-9 


—17-5 



°v. 

+4-8 
+ 1.6 
+ 2.2 



-1-2.0 
-fl.O 
+ 6.2 
+ 1.2 



378 



VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 



The following table represents 'the data relating to the composition of 
jams from samples purchased in the open market, free from glucose and 
apparently pure: 



Description. 



Apricots, 

Currants, . . . 

Figs, ... 

Grape fruit,. 

Guava, 

Peach, 

Strawberries, 



Total 
Solids. 



Percent. 

70-15 
66.32 
69.89 
69.20 
82.46 
65-65 
75-83 



Acidity. 



Percent. 
.407 
1. 117 
•744 
•387 
.299 
.500 
.480 



Reducing 
Sugar. 



Percent. 
38.96 

52-45 

27.00 

25-14 
36.48 

37-15 



Cane 
Sugar. 



Percent. 
26.00 
1.64 
45-92 
35-51 
52-73 
23.16 

31-43 



Total 
Sugar. 



Percent. 
64.96 

54-09 

62.51 

77.87 

59-64 
68.58 



The average composition of a large number of pure jams, some of which 
were made in the laboratory and some purchased in the open market, is as 
follows : 



Data. 



Average, . . 

Maximum, 
Minimum, . 



Total 
Solids. 



Percent. 
65.98 
82.46 
50-43 



Acidity. 



Percent. 
•536 

1-355 
.163 



Reducing 
Sugar. 



Percent. 
36.41 
61.02 
13.20 



Cane 
Sugar. 



Percent. 

22.15 

54-23 

•30 



Total 
Sugar. 



Percent. 
58.56 



The analytical data show that the jams, in so far as active food constituents 
are concerned, are composed chiefly of sugar. These sugars include both 
that natural to the fruit and that which has been added. The average content 
of sugar in round numbers is 58.5 percent, while in round numbers the average 
content of solids, not sugar, is 7.5 percent. It is thus seen that the amount 
of sugar present in round numbers is eight times as great as that of the other 
solids. It is also noticed that the percentage of reducing sugar is about one- 
third greater than the cane sugar, indicating that the inversion of the sugar, 
when the real fruits have been used in the manufacture, has been carried to 
such an extent as to avoid any danger of crystallization. These data are 
all in complete refutation of the claims made by many manufacturers that 
it is necessary to add glucose in the manufacture of complex products of 
this kind in order to prevent crystallization. If the real fruit is used in the 
proper quantity and the manufacture conducted according to the approved 
method, there is no danger of crystallization except in those rare cases where 
the fruits used have little or no acid. 

Adulteration of Jams. — The adulterations of jams are practically the same 
as those which are practiced with jellies. Artificial colors have been very 



JELLIES. 379 

extensively used together with the artificial flavors reseml^ling the fruits, 
the names of which appear erroneously upon the packages. Glucose is 
used to a large extent in these adulterated goods. In the adulterated articles 
a preservative is nearly always present. Starch is used but very rarely for 
adulterating articles of this kind. 

Fifty-eight samples of jams which proved to be adulterated were bought on 
the open market by the Bureau of Chemistry, none of which bore any label or 
description indicating that it was an adulterated article. The character of 
the principal adulterant (glucose) in each case is revealed at once by the 
polarization, which is always strongly right-handed, and also by other chemical 
tests for glucose. The quantity of sulfate and chlorid in the ash of these 
samples is always very considerably increased over that of the natural product. 
The quantity of glucose in some of the samples is so great as to indicate that 
practically the whole of the solid matter is composed of this substance. In 
two samples the alleged jam contained no fruit product whatever. In many 
cases more than 70 percent of glucose is found and in one instance as high 
as 76 percent. In a great majority of the cases the glucose is approximately 
one-half of the whole weight of the jam. In a great many cases the glucose 
was present in quantities which indicated the utilization of some fruit product. 
There were a few cases where the amount of glucose fell below 10 percent. 
Artificial coloring matter was present in almost every case, and in the great 
majority of cases either benzoic acid or salicylic acid is present as a preser- 
vative. The colors used are coal tar dyes and cochineal. 

It is evident that articles of food adulterated in this manner should not l)e 
permitted to bear the name of the natural product, and in many of the states 
the local laws forbid the use of a misleading name. The national law, which 
was approved on the 30th of June, 1906, also forbids misbranding of this de- 
scription. 

In addition to the jams which on their labels bore no indication of the 
adulterations, a number of samples of jam were purchased labeled "Com- 
pound, " or in some way indicating that they were not the pure article. Thir- 
teen samples of this kind were examined in the Bureau of Chemistry and all of 
them had very large quantities of glucose, the largest amount present in any 
one case being 37 percent. They were all artificially colored, and ten of 
them contained preservatives, either benzoic or salicvlic acid. 

Jellies. — In addition to the jellies which were made in the laboratory of 
the Bureau of Chemistry for the purpose of controlling the investigation, 
44 samples of jelly were bought upon the open market. Of these commercial 
samples 19 contained no glucose, 13 of them contained glucose, but were not 
so labeled, and 12 were labeled as compound or adulterated articles. Nearly 
all of the commercial jellies were made with apple juice as the base. The 
apple juice and glucose made up practically the total solids, no matter what 



380 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

name was applied. The flavors were artificial, and a very large number of 
the samples contained preservatives. The samples of jelly which contained 
no glucose were evidently made of the natural fruit,— they contained no 
artificial coloring matter and in only a few instances did they contain preser- 
vatives. On the other hand the jellies which were made of glucose were 
uniformly colored and contained preservatives. 

It is of interest here to say a few words about the very cheapest of adulterated 
jellies which are found upon the market. These jellies were made with 
some apple juice, but chiefly of glucose. They contained large quantities 
of preservatives, and the ash was rich in sulfates and chlorids except in two 
instances. In these cases it is possible that the glucose which was used was 
manufactured by some special process not involving the use of either sul- 
furic or hydrochloric acid. 

Adulteration of Jelly. — JeUies are of the class of fruit products Avhich 
have been extensively adulterated. The markets of the country have been 
flooded for vears with so-called "coriipound jellies" or imitations of jelly. 
The chief forms of adulteration are the following: The use of apple stock 
for making all kinds of jelly. Attention has already been called to the fact 
that apples contain a large number of pectose bodies which favor jellification. 
A common method of manufacturing jelly has been to use a stock of apple 
juice or cider or a preparation made from the cores, skins, and rejected por- 
tions of the apple at evaporating factories or from whole rejected apples. 
This stock is used as a common base for the manufacture of jellies of different 
kinds. Whenever apple juice enters into the composition of a jelly made 
from any other fruit than the apple it becomes an adulteration. Phosphoric 
and other acids are added to jellies to enable jellification to take place with 
the use of less fruit and more water. 

Artificial Coloring. — In as much as each kind of fruit tends to give to a 
jelly a particular color, it is evident that if apple stock is used the natural colors 
of the other fruits must be imitated. 

To this end coal tar dyes have been generally employed, and sometimes 
vegetable or animal coloring matter to imitate the color of the fruit whose 
name is given to the product. 

Artificial Flavors. — Since when apple stock is vised as a base of manu- 
facture it imparts to the finished product onl\' the flavor of apples, artificial 
chemical flavors resembling other fruits are employed. Thus the jellies 
which, presumably, are made from other fruits, have the particular flavor 
of those fruits imitated in a wholly artificial way. 

Composition of Jelly. — The properties of a jelly, in respect of its distinct 
character, are due solel}- to the fruit from which it is made. Each one of the 
fruits contains essential oils, ethereal substances, acids, etc., which give to 
it a distinct character. These bodies are carried with the fruit juice into the 



MANUFACTURE OF JELLIES. 



381 



finished product and give to it its distinct characteristics. The sugar, of 
course, in all these products is the same. In the following table are found 
the data showing the composition of jellies made from different fruits in the 
Bureau of Chemistry. 

COMPOSITION OF JELLY. 



Description of 

Sample. 





>< i 


^ 






Wo 


\d 








nW 


X 


a 






^ 




< ■* 






X 

< 


Q 


'J) 

Q 
M 

s 

P-i 


3 



Sugars. 



Polarizations. 



^^ 


I. 


d 


rt 


M 


ho 


3t3 


= 73 










-^ 


u| 




C 


a 


d 


U 


u 


P.c«. 


P.ct. 


51-76 


33-04 


54-89 


44-90 


57.&1 


23.68 


60.29 


30-52 


53-39 


32.74 


65-59 


62.52 


6,V70 


56-59 


6309 


5S.46 


7298 


56.70 


70.22 


65.22 


,-:;.S.oo 


22.67 


4S.05 


25-48 


64.66 


22.37 


5972 


24 22 



u 


U 


Q 


Q 


00 


CO 


^ 




a 


d 




-^ 










Q 


e 


°V. 


°F. 


+ 24.0 


— 20.6 


+47-0 


— 20.1 


+ 13-0 


— iq.O 


+22.3 


— 18.9 


+24.1 


—20.1 


+61.3 


—23-1 


+53 4 


—23.0 


+ 52-7 


—26.2 


+.50.4 


—26.1 


+63-7 


—24-3 


+ 17-8 


-12.8 


+ 16.7 


-17.8 


+ 7-6 


—22.6 


+ 14-8 


—17.9 



2040S 

20405 

20410 

20405 
20412 

20435 

20437 
20434 
20436 
20433 

20404 



2041 1 
20407 



Apple (fall pippin) . . 

Blackberry 

Crab apple 

Grape (Ives seedling) 

Huckleberry 

Orange (Florida na- 
vel) 

Peach 

Pear (Bartlelt) . . . . 

Pineapple 

Pineapple husk . . . 

Plum (damson) . . . 

Plum (wild fox) . . . 

Plum (wild fox), 
boiled down . . . . 

Mi.xed fruit 



P.ct. 
59-18 
59-63 
63.28 
63-66 
63.02 

68.56 
69.98 
69.12 
80.28 
76.34 
45-56 
54-49 

73.01 
66.58 



P.ct. 


P.ct. 


P.ct. 


P.ct. 


0.22 


0.279 


0.175 


20.78 


•33 


•475 


•243 


12.51 


.11 


.171 


■137 


34-93 


-45 


-524 


-175 


32.29 


.28 


•245 


.069 


24.27 


•30 


.171 


.418 


3-95 


.21 


•245 


-175 


8-75 


•34 


.181 


-1,56 


6..58 


-43 


..328 


•,387 


22.13 


•73 


-352 


•350 


7.40 


.68 


1. 127 


-350 


19.18 


.40 


1.029 


.138 


24.00 


-65 


1-529 


•175 


44.22 


.21 


-367 


.069 


39-70 



P.ct. 

36-17 
18.20 
58.88 

49-33 
37-54 

4.91 
II. 16 

7-33 
2845 

7.12 
40.38 
46.97 

66.18 
40.38 



°V. 
— 1.2 



+ .2 
— 4 



— .6 

— i.S 



— .6 

+ 2.2 



As is to be expected the chief constituent of these jellies is the sugar which 
is derived from two sources — that in the natural juice and that added in 
the manufacture. The data show that the cjuantity of cane sugar inverted 
varies greatly with the different fruits. Some of the fruit juices ajipear to 
have little or no effect whatever in the inversion of sugar. This is particu- 
larly true of the orange, the pear, and the jelly made from the husks of pine- 
apples. 

Manufacture of Jellies. — In the manufacture of jellies the fruit juices 
are separated from the pulp}- mass of the fruit, and these alone are used in 
the process. The most common method of procedure is to boil the fruit 
with more or less water until the juices are more or less separated and then 
to remove them by straining or pressure. The fruits are heated for this 
purpose with sufficient water to prevent scorching ifntil they are thoroughly 
softened and then reduced to a pulp. The best jellies are made from juices 
which are obtained by simply allowing tjie^julpy mass to drain through cloth. 
The juices thus obtained are clear and free of any suspended matter. When 
pressure is used the juices are less clear and contain more or less suspended 
solid matter. In the preparation of jellies approximately equal portions of 
pure cane sugar and the strained juices are used, and the mixture is boiled 
for a few minutes. It is evident that in the manufacture of jelly where 



382 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

boiling is not continued for any length of time the amount of sugar inverted 
is less than in the manufacture of jams and preserves v^^here the boiling is 
continued for a greater length of time. 

The quantity of non-crystallizing material in the juices from which the 
jellies are made, namely, the pectose bodies in fruits, is sufficient in most cases 
to prevent the crystallization of the cane sugar in the jelly. The jelly is 
formed by these pectose bodies being present in the juice in sufficient quan- 
tities to become semi-solid on cooling after manufacture. The solidifying 
may take place in a short time or only after several hours. The juice at the 
time of completion of the boiling is thoroughly sterilized, and in this hot 
condition should be placed in sterilized vessels and covered before setting 
away with sterilized parchment paper or a thin film of sterilized paraffine. 
The covering of the surface will prevent the deposition of the seed of moulds 
and bacteria which often infect the top layer of jellies or other fruit products 
prepared in a similar manner whose surface is not properly protected. 

Preservatives. — Since the care which is necessary to prepare a jelly in 
a thoroughly sterilized condition and to protect the exposed surface so that in- 
fection thereof cannot take place is a matter of expense and requires great at- 
tention to details, it has been sought to avoid these by the use of chemical 
preservatives. Salicylic acid and benzoic acid or benzoate of soda have 
been the principal preservatives employed, and until state and municipal 
laws introduced a proper inspection or analysis of these products the use 
of these chemical preservatives was very common. In later years their use 
has been gradually diminished, owing to the objections on the part of the 
laws and the public to the presence of these bodies in the finished products. 
There are, however, still on the market many products which are preserved by 
salicylic acid, benzoic acid, or benzoate of soda or some similar active agent. ■ 

From the above resume it is seen that the consumer who buys in the open 
market is not quite certain that he is getting the product for which he pays. 
This condition of affairs will doubtless pass away with the advent of the 
proper inspection of fruits which are used in manufacturing on a large scale 
and a proper supervision of the manufacturing establishments, together 
with a rigid execution of the national and state food laws. Under such con- 
ditions the adulterations will either disappear from the market or be so 
labeled as to practically inform the purchaser of their character. 

Marmalade. — The term "marmalade" is applied to a special character 
of fruit product prepared in the same manner as jam in which the fruit is 
not so thoroughly pulped. The orange is a fruit which is used very extei-^- 
sively for making marmalade, — an orange marmalade, in other words, is only 
a fruit product of the character of jam and made after the same manner. 
This class of fruit products is so nearly the same as jam as not to need any 
special description. 



COMPOUND JAMS AND JELLIES. 383 

Adulteration. — The adulterations to which the marmalades are subjected are 
practically the same as for jams. In the study of marmalade in the Bureau 
of Chemistry 96 samples were examined. Of this number 86 were commer- 
cial products and 10 were prepared in the laboratory of the Bureau. Of the 
commercial articles 18 samples, somewhat less than 20 percent, contained 
no glucose. Fifty-three contained glucose, but were not so labeled, and 15 
were labeled as compound or artificial. The percentage of solids in these 
products varied within a wide limit. The maximum percentage of solids found 
was 82.46 and the minimum 53.43. The average percentage of ash in the 
marmalade not containing glucose was 0.32, and the average alkalinity of the 
ash as measured by a standard acid was 0.26. In the adulterated marmalade 
containing glucose the average percentage of ash was 0.59, almost as great as 
in the pure article, and the average alkalinity was 0.29, somewhat greater 
than in the pure article. 

Compound Jams and Jellies. — A word should be said respecting the 
meaning of the word "compound" as attached to fruit products, especially 
jams and jellies, since it is a word which has been selected as somewhat more 
euphonious than the term "adulterated" or "misbranded." So true is this 
that the word "compound" when placed upon a food product indicates at 
once to the purchaser that the article is a mixture or substitute. The 
term, therefore, indicates the character of sophistication. To such an 
extent may this be practiced that the actual material named in connection 
with the word "compound" may be absent from the mixture altogether. 
The term arose first on account of the desire of the manufacturer to leave 
off of the labels a statement of the exact composition of the contents of the 
package and to substitute a word of less significance, and at the same time 
to comply with certain state laws which require that all fruit products con- 
taining glucose be labeled with the word " compound" or some similar term. 
A much simpler and more direct method would be to make the label a truthful 
one, indicating, as nearly as possible, the character of the product. A com- 
pound generally means a jelly or jam made without the fruit named, that is, 
largely of glucose. It also indicates, as a rule, that the product is artificially 
colored and artificially flavored. In these cases the word "imitation" is to 
be preferred, inasmuch as the mixtures bearing the word "compound" can 
only be regarded in reality as a mixture of unlike substances. 

General Conclusions. — In regard to fruit products made by boiling 
with sugar, the general statement that they should l^e true to name and free 
from artificial colors, preservatives, or other adulterations apparently covers 
the whole ground. If it is desired to make a cheaper article for the benefit 
of consumers of small means, the principles which should guide the manu- 
facturers are plain. The materials which are added should be wholesome 
and free from deleterious or injurious matter. The poor man, while entitled 



384 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

to get a cheaper article, is likewise entitled, as well as the rich man, to protection 
from deleterious substances. In the present state of our knowledge, glucose 
is not regarded by the majority of hygienists as a substance injurious to health. 
If it be injurious it is due more to a lack of care in manufacture than to any 
inherent properties. Glucose, however, has been found injurious to bees and 
is not a natural product such as maltose and sucrose. The objections to 
glucose which have been legitimately made are due to the fact that the acids 
which have been used in converting the starch and also the sulfurous acid 
which has been used in bleaching the product have not been entirely removed. 
It appears that the glucose used for food purposes can be freed from all ob- 
jection by inverting the starch from which it is made with diastase and avoiding 
the use of all bleaching reagents. The glucose thus made would not be water- 
white, nor is it desirable for edible purposes that it be so, since it is always, 
except, perhaps, in the manufacture of certain candies, used in connection 
with naturally colored food products. There is no reason to believe that a 
glucose made as described and possessing, as it naturally would, an amber 
or reddish color would be less desirable than a product which is absolutely 
colorless. This suggestion, therefore, is made to the manufacturer of gluccse 
for edible purposes in the interest of public health and to avoid any possible 
condemnation of the glucose by reason of the method of manufacture, namely, 
that the use of acid in the manufacture of glucose be discontinued, that malt 
or some other form of diastase be substituted and that bleaching, except by 
passing through animal charcoal, be entirely omitted. The product made in 
this way wculd be free from the objections which have been, and may in the 
future still be, urged with reason against its use. 

Preserves. — The term "preserves" is a general one which is appHed in 
common language to a preparation of fruit preserved by boiling with sugar 
until complete sterilization is accomplished. The term in its general applica- 
tion includes the different varieties of preserves which have already been 
mentioned, namely, jams, marmalades, etc. It must also be extended to 
include the class of fruit products known as jellies, though, as a rule, it is 
not made so comprehensive in meaning, inasmuch as the jelly does not contain 
any of the solid particles of fruit. Perhaps there is no other part of the food- 
manufacturing industry which is so universally practiced in the household 
as the manufacture of preserves. Not only is this true of farm life in the 
country but also of those living in the city. The sterilization of fresh fruit 
without the use of sugar is not nearly so common as the making of the domestic 
supply of preserved fruits in the sense above mentioned. There is only one 
sufficient reason for the preparation of such foods, namely, the suspicion 
which attaches to the manufactured article appearing upon the market. 
So universal has been the custom of artificially coloring the product, and of 



PEACH PRESERVES — FRUIT BUTTER — BRANDIED FRUIT. 385 

the use of glucose and preservatives, as to create a general impression among 
consumers that the articles thus purchased in the open market are adulterated 
and misbranded. When these preparations are made in the household we 
are at least assured of the genuineness of the product. It must be admitted 
that the art and technique of manufacture cannot possibly be so perfect in 
the home as in the large factories. It follows as a necessary consequence 
that such goods as those indicated ought to be better and cheaper and more 
readily preserved if made in large manufacturing centers than when made 
at home. Even those who make the genuine product suffer in common with 
those who make adulterated articles, since the suspicion of adulteration 
attaches to the whole output. The practice of domestic manufacture will 
undoubtedly continue until the public is fully convinced that better and 
cheaper articles can be purchased in the open market. 

Peach Preserves. — A common practice among the housewives throughout 
the United States is to boil peaches with sugar or sugar sirup, forming the 
well known product, peach preserves. Preserves of this kind are considered 
a delicacy, and, as they are easily made and kept, they are a very common 
article of diet throughout all parts of the country where peaches are grown. 

Fruit Butter. — There are several preparations of fruit which differ in 
some respect from those just mentioned, to which the term "butter" has 
been applied, such as apple butter, peach butter, etc., and these are common 
articles of domestic manufacture. This type of article is illustrated by a 
description of apple butter. 

Apple butter is made by boiling comminuted, sound, carefully selected 
apples of a proper degree of maturity with cider until the whole mass forms 
a bulk of the proper consistence. The preparation thus made is treated with 
certain spices according to the desire of the manufacturer and the taste of 
the consumer. There is quite a quantity of material insoluble in water in 
genuine fruit butter. The rest consists of water, the added sugar, if any, 
and the fruit juice with which the butter is made. 

Adulteration of Fruit Butter. — Very extensive adulterations are practiced 
in the case of some commercial fruit butters. In the Bureau of Chemistry 
as high as 30 percent of glucose has been found as an added product. The 
addition of cane sugar cannot be regarded as an adulteration but the best 
fruit butters are made without it. Artificial colors are sometimes used, and 
preservatives, especially benzoic acid, are quite common in the commercial 
article. 

Brandied Fruit. — The use of brandy in common with sugar in the pre- 
servation of fruit is widely practiced. Sometimes alcohol alone is relied upon 
as a preserving agent. At other times greater or less quantities of cane 
sugar are used. Usually heat is employed in addition to the other preserving 
agents to complete sterilization. Nearly all forms of fruit may be preserved 
26 



386 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

in this way. Brandied cherries and peaches are perhaps the most abundant. 
The quantity of alcohol employed varies between 15 and 20 percent of the 
total weight of the goods. The quantity of cane sugar used has been found 
to range from six to 20 percent of the weight of the fruit. Fruit preserved 
in this way cannot be regarded in the light of food solely, but only as a condi- 
mental substance. The eating of any large quantity of food containing that 
percentage of alcohol could not be accomplished without danger of intoxi- 
cation. The utilization of such foods upon the table should be of a re- 
stricted character, and, especially, they should not be used with children or 
very young people where the danger from the direct effects of the alcohol 
is magnified and the possibility of forming the alcohol habit is also present. 

Adulteration of Brandied Fruits. — The principal adulteration of brandied 
fruit is in the use of aclohol which is not genuine brandy. It is well known 
that much of the brandy offered in commerce is fictitious, that is, is not the 
pure distilled alcoholic product from sound wine properly aged in wood 
before using. When brandy is purchased for preserved fruit, unless special 
care is taken to secure the genuine article the imitation article may be supplied. 
Instead of the real brandy the manufacturers may use an article which is 
entirely devoid of any product of the distillation of wine or containing; 
only a small amount thereof. The term "brandy" used with the fruit in 
such a case is a misnomer and the article would be deemed misbranded 
under the provisions of the law. The manufacturer can assure himself 
of the purity of the brandy by obtaining it from a bonded warehouse, since 
it is made under the supervision of the officials of the internal revenue and 
kept under such supervision until delivered to the consumer. Inasmuch 
as preparations of this kind are regarded as delicacies and the cost of the 
product does not enter materially into consideration it is highly advisable 
that only genuine brandy, distilled from sound wine and aged in wood for a 
period of not less than four years, be employed in the manufacture. 

Importance of the Canning and Preserving Industries. — The statistics 
for the canning and preserving industries for the calendar year ending; 
December 31, 1904, form a part of the census of manufactures, which is 
made in conformity with the act of Congress of March 6, 1902, and are 
compared with similar statistics for the census of 1900, which covered the 
fiscal year ending May 31st. 

There has been a large increase in these industries. The slight decrease 
in the average number of wage-earners is more apparent than real, and is- 
due largely to the fact that a considerable number were employed in fish 
canneries under a contract system. The contractor furnishes the laborers 
and is paid for an agreed quantity of product. The establishment reporting 
has no record of the number employed by the contractors, and they were 
not included in the number reported, the amount paid for such contract 



IMPORTANCE OF CANNING AND PRESERVING INDUSTRIES. 



387 



work being included in the item of miscellaneous expenses. Fishermen 
were not included in the census, and it is possible that a larger proportion of 
the salted fish was prepared in connection with the actual catch than at the 
census of 1900, thus accounting in part, at least, for the decrease in the 
quantity. 



CANNING AND PRESERVING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, AND FISH AND 

OYSTERS. 

Comparative Summary — Censuses of 1904 and 1900. 



Number of establishments,. . 

Capital, 

Salaried officials, clerks, etc. 

Number, 

Salaries, 

Wage-earners: 

Average number, 

Wages, 

Miscellaneous expenses, 

Materials used, 

Products : ^ 

Aggregate value, 

Fruits and Vegetables — 

Total value, 

Canned Vegetables 

Pounds, 

Value, 

Canned Fruits — 

Pounds, 

Value, , 

Dried Fruits — 

Pounds, 

Value, 

Fish- 
Total value, 

Canned — 

Pounds, , 

Value, 

Smoked — 

Pounds, 

Value, 

Salted- 
Pounds, 

Value, 

Oysters — 

Value, 

All other products, 



2,687 
$69,589,316 

3-604 

$3,216,773 

50,258 

$14,154,730 
8,544,497 

69,814,330 
$107,534,464 

$72,570,974 

f>672, 759,438 
$45,262,148 

295,760,355 
$11,644,042 

343,579,623 
$15,664,784 

$24,452,533 

259,469,861 
$15,966,513 

35,439,619 

$2,362,740 

112,156,655 
$6,123,280 

$3,799,412 
6,711,545 



2,182 
$47,970,787 

2,418 
$1,926,639 

51,955 

$12,759,459 

3,290,459 

52,243.948 

$81,020,384 

$44,460,665 

1,142,327,265 
$28,734,598 

293,637,273 
$11,311,062 

81,189,406 
$4,415,005 

$20,542,691 

167,836,808 

$14,308,723 

21,252,066 
$973,041 

125,669,131 

$5,260,927 

2,054,800 
$13,962,228 



Percent 
OF Increase. 



23.1 
45;! 

49.0 
67.0 

3-3' 
10.9 

159-7 
33-6 

32.7 
63.2 

46.4 
57-5 

•7 
2.9 

323-2 
254.8 

19.0 

54-6 
11.6 

66.8 
142.8 

10.8 > 
16.4 

84.9 
51-9' 



^ Decrease. 

^ E.xclusive of fruits and vegetables valued at $715,920, fish at $274,403, and oysters 
at $12,900, manufactured by establishments classified as food preparations, pickles, pre- 
serves and sauces, slaughtering and meat packing, wholesale, etc. 



^88 VEGETABLES, CONDIMENTS, FRUITS. 

Importance of the Industry. — The importance of the cannhig industry 
is not to be measured solely by its commercial extent. The principle of the 
conservation of food products by sterilization or pasteurization is of immense 
significance in the nutrition of man. It enables nourishing foods of a per- 
ishable character to be kept and transported to great distances and to be used 
in localities where fresh foods of similar kinds are othen\'ise unobtainable. 
Such preserved foods mean everything to pioneers, explorers, armies, and 
navies. The "winning of the west" in the United States has been marked by 
the debris of the rusty cans. The roads along which the pioneers who settled 
the great American desert marched since 1865 have been bordered with the 
discarded packages in which they carried their foods. 

It is doubtless true that foods when they can be had fresh are to be preferred 
to those which have been sterilized. It is also true that many unsterilized 
foods from unsanitary environments are more dangerous in the fresh state 
than when they have been exposed to a high temperature. Taking into con- 
sideration all the circumstances in the case, it must be conceded that the 
process of sterilization, first practiced by Appert and afterward placed on a 
scientific basis by Pasteur, has proved of almost immeasurable advantage to 
mankind. Thus for this greater reason the character and quality of foods 
thus preserved should be wholly above suspicion, and no adulteration or so- 
phistication of any kind should be practiced therewith. The manufacturer 
is quite as much interested as the consumer in placing the whole output of 
sterilized foods on a plane above suspicion. 

Character of the Container. — Much in the direction of securing a better 
product may be accomplished by a more careful selection of the container. 
The common method of preserving canned goods is in tin. This material, as 
is well known, is placed on the surface of sheet iron and should be free of other 
metals. Lead especially should be excluded from the composition of the tin as 
far as possible. In spite of all these precautions, however, the coating of the 
tin is sometimes broken so that the iron itself may be attacked, perforations 
resujt, and the package of goods be spoiled. More frequently, however, the 
erosion of the tin plate occurs over widely extended areas, introducing into the 
contents of the package a considerable quantity of tin salts. This may be pre- 
vented to a certain degree by coating the surface of the tin with a gum or 
varnish which is not acted upon by the contents of the package. Glass is also 
coming into more general use, and if it could be secured of a character to avoid 
breakage it would be possible to replace to a considerable extent the tin pack- 
ages now in such common use and thus prevent the introduction of soluble tin 
salts into the food. In this case the glass itself should be free of lead, borax 
and fiuorids. A glass package is now coming into use which is tough and 
resistant to ordinary causes of fracture. Much may be expected from progress 
in this direction. 



PART VII. 

VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 



VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 

The production of a substance known as fat or oil, composed of oxygen, 
hydrogen, and carbon in the form of a fatty acid and combined with glycerine, 
is a function of almost every plant. The fat acids are usually in combination 
with glycerine, which plays the part of a base and in so far as its proportion 
by weight is concerned is much less important than the fatty acid itself. 
In round numbers it may be said that nine-tenths of all glycerids or fats are 
composed of a fatty acid and one-tenth of glycerine. When at ordinary 
temperature this combination is in a liquid form it is called an oil, and when 
at ordinary temperature it is in a solid or semi-solid condition it is known 
as a fat. The term "ordinary temperature" means in this connection that 
of an ordinary living room and not the extremes of outside temperature. 
In general terms it may be said that the temperatures referred to are included 
between the minimum of 50 degrees and the maximum of 85 degrees F. 
In so far as chemical composition and dietetic properties are concerned, 
there is no distinction between the oils and the fats. The names are simply 
a means of ordinary discrimination which has assumed importance by reason 
of common usage. 

There are three of the fatty acids which are particularly important from 
a dietetic point of view which go to make up the greater part of these fatty 
and edible vegetable oils and fats. These three acids are oleic, stearic, and 
palmitic. Of the three, oleic acid is by far the most important, as it constitutes 
the greater part of nearly all these bodies, especially of oils. In fact the term 
"olein" and oil are of common origin. Palmitic acid exists chiefly in certain 
forms of vegetable oil and fats, while stearic acid is a very important constituent 
of animal oils and fats. 

These three acids uniting with glycerine form the glycerids which make 
up the great body of edible and animal oils and fats, and these principal 
glycerids are known as olein, palmitin, and stearin, respectively. 

Chemical Characteristics. — The chemical composition of these bodies 
has been pointed out above. There is, however, in almost all cases, some 

389 



39° VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

free acid present in the compound, that is, an acid which is present un- 
combined with the glycerine. This free acid is usually present in small quan- 
tities and is more abundant in the overripe and older plants than in the 
freshly matured parts. The natural oil also contains certain other ingredients 
which may be regarded as impurities, and which it is necessary to remove 
from the oils by a process of purification or refining before they are ready 
for the table. These impurities may be of a mechanical nature, that is, 
consisting of parts of the material itself from which the oil is expressed or 
of certain juices not oils which are found in the plant tissue, portions of pro- 
tein and other forms of nitrogenous matter, and traces of carbohydrates and 
gums. The oils have certain definite chemical reactions which are common 
to them as a class. Among these may be cited, principally, the faculty of 
absorbing, under certain conditions, the halogens, namely iodin, bromin, and 
chlorin. 

Without entering into any technical description of this process it is sufficient 
to say here that the degree of absorption of iodin is in a measure the test for 
the varieties of oil. The different vegetable oils have, as a rule, certain definite 
relations to the absorption of iodin by means of which they may be to a certain 
extent identified or separated from similar bodies. The degree of absorption 
is expressed in the percentage by weight of the oil itself and is known as the 
iodin number. If, for instance, a gram of any particular oil absorbs one 
gram of iodin, it is said to have an iodin number of loo. Many oils absorb 
more than their own weight of iodin, while many others absorb very much 
less. Another characteristic of oil is found in the fact that with certain reagents, 
such as an acid either in a dilute state or in a concentrated state, definite colors 
are produced which are characteristic of the variety of oil in question. As 
an example of this may be cited the faculty which cottonseed oil has of reducing 
nitrate of silver to the metallic state, leaving the silver in that finely divided 
form which has a black color. This is the only oil in common use which 
has this faculty, and hence it may be regarded as a characteristic test. 

Another characteristic chemical property of cottonseed oil is the color which 
is produced in the Halphen reaction, which has already been described. 

One of the most valuable chemical properties of oil is the amount of heat 
which is produced when it is burned. Inasmuch as oils in relation to their 
food value are useful chiefly for the production of animal heat, this chemical 
property becomes of great hygienic and dietetic significance. Of all classes 
of food products the oils and fats have the highest calorific power. If, for 
instance, it is said in general that one gram of carbohydrates, such as sugar or 
starch, on complete combustion will yield 4,000 calories, one gram of protein 
5,500 calories, then one gram of oil or fat will yield 9,300 calories. The fats 
and oils vary among themselves in respect of the number of calories yielded, 
but all of them give, approximately, the number last mentioned. It therefore 



DRYING AND NON-DRYING VEGETABLE OILS. 39 1 

follows that oils and fats are the most valuable constituents of food in respect 
of the production of heat and energy. 

Crystalline Characteristics. — The forms of crystals which the fats 
assume on solidifying are valuable indicators of the nature of the oil. While 
these crystal forms are not in all cases distinct, yet they are influenced to a 
greater or less extent by the nature of the oil itself. Thus the presence of 
any particular oil may very often be ascertained by the examination of the 
crystals produced by lowering the temperature very slowly or by dissolving 
the oil in a volatile solvent and gradually evaporating the solvent. Tests 
of even greater delicacy may be obtained by first saponifying the fat or oil, 
separating the fatty acid, and subjecting it to crystallization. 

Distribution of Oils in Plants. — In nearly all cases the part of the plant 
which contains the most oil is the seeds. In fact all of the vegetable oils 
which are used for edible purposes are extracted from the seed of the plant. 
In the case of olives the meaty portion around the seed yields the edible oil 
of highest value, but in all other cases of edible oils they are derived from 
the seeds themselves. It is a mistake to suppose that the seeds are the only 
parts of the plant that contain oil. It is found in all parts of vegetable sub- 
stances, but is usually concentrated in the seed. It is rather an interesting 
fact to know that in the seeds of plants l)oth the protein and fats or oils are 
found, as a rule, in a highly concentrated state, while the carbohydrates are 
not found chiefly in the seed itself, that is the germ, but distributed in the 
fleshy envelope surrounding it or in roots or tubers. 

The oils and fats are almost all .soluble in ether and petroleum ether, tliough 
there are some exceptions to this, as in the case of castor oil, which is also 
insoluble in petroleum ether or gasoline. On the contrary, oils and fats, as 
a rule, are not soluble in alcohol, but the fatty acids derived from them are. 
Castor oil is also an exception to this rule, since it is quite soluble in pure 
alcohol. 

Drying and Non-drying Vegetable Oils.— It might be supposed that 
if one vegetable oil is edible they all would be. This would probably be 
the case if vegetable oils were all composed almost exclusively of the three 
classes of glycerids, which have just been mentioned, but this is not true. 
There are other fatty acids in combination with the glycerids which e.xist 
in vegetable oils, and chief among these may be mentioned Imoleic acid, 
which exists in considerable quantities in the oil of flax seed, and gives to it 
its valuable property of a drying oil which makes it so useful in the manu- 
facture of paints. Whenever vegetable oils and fats contain any especial 
quantity of linoleic acid, or any other fatty acid which has drying properties, 
they are rendered more or less unfit for human consumption. The number of 
drying oils is very great, but the most important are linseed oil, hempseed oil, 
and poppyseed oil. Other vegetable oils have, to, a certain degree, drymg 



392 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

properties, and among those which are most marked in this particular may be 
mentioned cottonseed oil, sesame oil, maize or corn oil, and rapeseed oil. 
Types of the oils which have the least drying properties and which are re- 
garded as types of non^drying oils are olive oil and peanut oil. The castor 
oil group is distinguished partially from the other vegetable oils because 
it contains, or is likely to contain, more or less of a somewhat poisonous sub- 
stance, namely, ricinolein, which is peculiar to castor oil and to which its 
purgative value as a medicine is due. The castor bean also contains a very 
poisonous nitrogenous base, ricin, very small quantities of which may be 
incorporated in the oil itself. 

Melting Point and Solidifying Point. — The oils and fats differ greatly 
among themselves in the temperature at which they become solid or liquid. 
If a solid fat or oil is subjected to a gradual rise of temperature it does not 
pass at once or suddenly from a solid to a liquid state, but there is a gradual 
liquefying,— thus olein first becomes liquid and the stearin and palmitin 
become liquid at a higher degree of temperature. The same phenomenon 
in its inverse order occurs when a liquid fat is cooled until it solidifies. The 
moment at which the fats become semi-liquid, liquid, or semi-solid, therefore, 
is not to be determined with absolute precision, but only approximately, and 
that temperature is designated as the melting or solidifying point respectively. 
When the process is carefully conducted under standard conditions the 
different fats and oils have very definite melting or solidifying points, as 
determined in the manner described above, and these temperatures should 
be sufficient to make the melting and solidifying points valuable indications 
of the character or kind of oil. 

Physical Characteristics. — The difference in the physical characteristics 
of vegetable fats and oils is even greater than in their chemical composition. 
Unfortunately for the chemist, the vegetable fats and oils naturally have 
about the same color or at least very slight variations therefrom, namely, 
an amber tint, so that, as a rule, it is impossible to discriminate between these 
oils by their mere color alone. The edible oils also have very much the 
same taste, so that this physical property is not of any very great diagnostic 
value. Some of the more important physical properties by which the oils 
are distinguished are the following: 

Refractive Index. — The well-known phenomenon which is shown by 
water of bending sharply a ray of light faUing upon it in a direction oblique 
to its surface is known as refraction, and the degree of deflection of the ray 
is a measure of the refractive index. This is easily illustrated by putting 
a straight stick or rod into still water at an angle to its surface. The stick 
or rod will appear to be broken or bent at the surface. Oils have a higher 
faculty of deflecting the ray of light than water. For instance, if in round 
numbers the refractive index of water is represented by 1.33, the refractive 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 



393 



index of oil may be represented by 1.47. The oils differ greatly among them- 
selves in the magnitude of the refractive index, but these indexes are all approx- 
imately of the magnitude last mentioned. Hence a determination of the 
refractive index is a valuable means of helping to discriminate between oils 
of different kinds. 

Reichert-Meissl Number. — Attention has been called to the fact that 
in addition to three special forms of fatty acids there v^-ere many others present 
in oils in small quantities. Among these are found acids which are volatile 
in a current of steam, which is not the case with the oleic, palmitic, and 
stearic acids. Among the most important of the volatile acids is the one 
which exists in large quantities in butter, namely butyric acid. The quantity 
of volatile acid is determined arbitrarily by the amount of a standard alkali 
solution which will be neutralized by the volatile acid from five grams of fat. 
In the case of butter, for instance, it may be said that in round numbers it 
requires 28 cubic centimeters of standard alkali to neutralize the volatile acid 
produced according to the above method of procedure. In cottonseed oil the 
amount of standard solution required to neutralize tiie volatile acid obtained 
in the same way is extremely minute, amounting to less than one-half cubic 
centimeter. 

I have given above a brief description of some of the physical and chemical 
characteristics of oils and fats in order that the reader not specially trained 
in chemistry may understand thoroughly the references made to these properties 
in the general description given of vegetable fats and oils. It is not necessary 
to be a skilled chemist in order to have a general knowledge of some of the • 
points which are of most interest in this respect. 

Saponification Value. — As is well known, one of the most common 
uses of oils and fats is in soap making. Soap consists of the products of 
chemical reactions by means of which the glycerine contained in an oil or fat 
is set free and a mineral or other base substituted therefor. For instance, 
lye consists of the hydrate or carbonate of potash and soda. When an oil 
is heated with a lye the fatty acid leaves the glycerine in the oil and combines 
with the potash or soda of the lye. The number of milligrams of potash or 
soda required to saponify one gram of fat or oil is called its saponification 
value. For instance, in the case of cottonseed oil it requires, in round numbers, 
190 milligrams of potash or hydrate of potash (KOH) to replace the glycerine 
in one gram of oil. The quantity of potash required for an edible oil to make 
a complete saponification varies, and hence this number becomes one of the 
means of distinguishing between them. 

Specific Gravity. — The relative weight of a given volume of oil compared 
with the weight of the same volume of water at the same temperature or at 
some standard temperature is known as its specific gravity. The oils and 
fats are universally lighter than water, and in the comparison the unit weight 



394 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

of water is assumed to be unity or loo or looo — usually unity or looo. If 
the relative weight of water is unity, then the relative weight or specific gravity 
of oil is expressed as a decimal fraction. For instance, if water is taken as 
unity the specific gravity of oil equals .912; if the relative weight of water 
is assumed to be one thousand then the specific gravity expressed above is 
912. Unless it is stated otherwise, in all references to specific gravity of these 
oils it is assumed that the comparison is between the unit weight of water 
and oil at the same temperature. This is the most convenient form for 
comparison for general use, though for strictly scientific purposes it is customary 
to refer all specific gravity numbers to water at the temperature of its maxi- 
mum density, namely 4 degrees C. (39 degrees F.). At this temperature a 
given weight of water has its smallest volume, in other words its greatest 
density. When water is raised to a temperature above that mentioned, it 
expands and its volume becomes larger. When it is cooled to a temperature 
below four degrees C, its volume also expands. 

The variations in the specific gravity of the common oils is not very great, 
and therefore the specific gravity is not the most valuable indication in dis^ 
criminating between these oils. 

Edible Vegetable Oils. 
While there is very little chemical difference between the fats of animals 
and the oils of plants, the difference is sufficiently distinguished to secure a 
proper degree of identification and classification. Both classes of bodies 
are composed of the fatty acids combined with glycerine. The three fatty 
acids which are most important from the edible point of view and also from 
the chemical are oleic, stearic, and palmitic. When these acids are united 
with glycerine as the Vjasic element, they form three classes of oils or fats to 
which the names olein, stearin, and palmitin are respectively given. A 
distinction may also be made between a fat and an oil by observing its physical 
consistence at ordinary room temperature of approximately from 70 to 80 
degrees F. It is usual to speak of the bodies which are liquid at such tem- 
perature as oils, while those that are solid under like conditions are known 
as fats. A compound of this description does not pass suddenly from one 
state to another. In the case of a fat, for instance, which is soHd at ordinary 
temperature, it passes by gradual stages from that condition to a slowly 
softening mass and then to a complete liquid as the temperature is raised. 
On the other hand, an oil passes gradually through the same stages to the 
condition of a sohd body as the temperature is lowered. Of the different 
constituents the olein has the lowest melting point, pure olein being still 
liquid at quite a low temperature, approaching even the freezing point of 
water. Stearin and palmitin on the contrary, if in a pure state, are solid 
at a temperature even above that of the room and above that of blood heat. 



USE OF EDIBLE OILS. 395 

In the mixture of these bodies it is evident that a complicated structure must 
be present which is composed of different bodies of varying melting points 
which pass, when subjected to different degrees of temperature, from a solid to a 
liquid state or vice versa. It is evident that an oil has a larger proportion 
of olein in its composition and a fat a larger proportion of stearin and palmitin. 

Animal fats are composed chiefly of olein and stearin, while strictly vege- 
table oils are principally olein, and palm oil is composed chiefly of stearin 
and palmitin. 

In butter fat there is introduced an important additional compound of a 
fatty acid with glycerine, namely butyrin, which is made up of a union of 
glycerine with butyric acid. Butter also contains other components or 
glycerids, but in small quantities. Oleic, stearic, and palmitic acids are 
insoluble in water and not volatile at the boiling point of water. Butyric acid 
is soluble in water and is' volatile at the Ijoiling point of water. The first 
kinds of acid are therefore called "fixed" and the second "volatile." 

The edible vegetable oils like the animal fats are highly nutritious in the 
sense that they afford to a greater degree than any other kind of food product 
the elements necessary to the production of heat and energy. The average 
number of calories to one gram of edible oil is in round number^ 9,3°°- When 
this number is compared with the a\'erage number of calories in one gram 
of sugar or starch, namely 4,000, it is seen that fats and oils are two and one- 
fourth times as valuable as sugar in the production of heat and energy. Since 
the greater part of the food consumed by an animal is utilized in the produc- 
tion of heat and energy, it is seen that the fats and oils must be classed as the 
most concentrated and in that sense the most valuable human foods. 

The use of edible vegetable oils is also advisable for hygienic purposes. 
They are readily assimilated and digested, and they produce a physical effect 
upon the process of digestion which is a matter of importance. The free 
use of edible vegetable oils is to be recommended in cases of constipation or 
where there are mechanical difficulties in the digestive process. In these 
cases it is consumed in larger quantities than would ordinarily be the case. 

Use of Edible Oils. — The edible oils are used most extensively on the 
tal)le as the base of salad-dressing. Many succulent vegetables, as has already 
been stated, are eaten very commonly with condimental substances such 
as vinegar, salt, spices, etc., and as a vehicle for these condimental substances 
there is nothing superior or even equal to the edible vegetable oils. Vinegar, 
itself, owes its active principle, namely, its acid, to a member of the fatty acid 
series, so that the mixture of vinegar with oil is not a bringing together of two 
wholly different substances but of two substances belonging to the same 
general family. Vinegar itself has no value as a food, but is useful solely 
for condimental purposes. On the other hand the edible oil is not only 
condimental, increasing the pleasant taste of the compound, but also has a 



396 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

high food value. Edible oils may also be used in the place of lard and other 
animal fats in the preparation of bread and pastry, serving the purpose of 
shortening. They are also highly useful as a vehicle for frying foods, such 
as oysters, croquettes, doughnuts, etc. 

The heating of an oil or fat to a high temperature produces a certain degree 
of decomposition with a development of an aromatic and sometimes un- 
pleasant product known as acrolein. It is not believed that this change is 
as detrimental to digestion as is commonly supposed. Products which are 
fried in oil, or boiled in oil, which is probably a better term, as described 
above, are not to be considered wholly indigestible, though it cannot be denied 
that they are not the best things for delicate stomachs or those which are in 
any way weakened by disease. In the case of a healthy individual, however, 
a moderate quantity of such products may be eaten without any great danger 
of producing a derangement of digestion. If these bodies are found to be 
indigestible, it is probably not due to the fact that they contain large quan- 
tities of oil but rather to the decomposition effected by the high temperature 
and the hardening of the periphery of the bodies to such an extent as to make 
them difi&cultly amenable to the activities of the digestive ferments. 

Acorn Oil. — The oil of the acorn is sometimes used for edible purposes. 
It is extracted by pressure, and the nature of the product depends upon the 
variety of the acorn. Acorn oil has at 15 degrees a specific gravity of .916 and 
an iodin number of 100. It is not of any commercial importance as an edible 
oil. 

Almond Oil. — Almond oil is not so commonly used for edible purposes as it 
is for pharmaceutical preparations. By reason of its flavoring properties, 
however, it may sometimes be used for food purposes, and a brief description,^ 
therefore, is advisable. 

Almond oil is obtained from the seed of the bitter almond, a variety of 
Amygdalus communis L. It may also be extracted from the seeds of the sweet 
almond, but these contain less oil than the bitter almond seed and the oil is not 
so useful for flavoring purposes. The bitter almond whose seeds are used for 
the extraction of oil are grown chiefly in Morocco, the Canary Islands, Portugal, 
Spain, France, Italy, Sicily, Syria, and Persia. The almond kernel contains 
about 40 percent of oil. Almond oil is said by most observers to be free from 
stearin, and it is therefore an oil which is composed almost exclusively of olein. 
The specific gravity of almond oil at 15 degrees C. is almost exactly that of rape- 
seed oil, being only a trifle higher. The average number expressing the specific 
gravity at that temperature is .918. Its iodin value is slightly lower than that 
of rapeseed oil, being about 97. 

Adulterations. — Almond oil is often adulterated with other cheaper oils, 
and among those which are principally used are cottonseed oil, walnut oil, 
poppyseed oil, sesame, peanut, apricot-kernel and peach-kernel oil, and lard oil. 



COTTONSEED OIL. 397 

Those most frequently used are the apricot and peach, since these oils contain 
the characteristic principle which gives the bitter taste to the kernels of this 
class in fruits. Often almond oils are offered to the trade which are composed 
exclusively of peach-kernel or apricot-kernel oil. Whenever the iodin number 
of an almond oil runs very high it is an indication that it is composed largely 
of peach or apricot oil. The detection of small quantities of these oils when 
added to almond oil is a very difficult matter and can only be accomplished by 
the expert chemist. 

Cottonseed Oil. — One of the most important edible oils in the world, and 
especially from the point of view of production in the United States, is that 
derived from the seed of the cotton plant (Gossypiiiin herhaceiim). 

The cotton plant grows over a wide area in the United States, including all of 
the southern states and extending into southern Virginia, southern Kentucky, 
southern Missouri, and Oklahoma. In former years the cotton plant was 
cultivated solely for its fiber. It is only in the last quarter of a century that the 
high value of its seed for many purposes has been realized. The seed of the 
cotton plant is preeminently rich in oil and protein. It contains traces of cer- 
tain poisonous alkaloids, betain and cholin, the presence of which renders its 
indiscriminate use for cattle food in some cases dangerous. In the preparation 
of oil, however, no trace of these poisonous substances is found, since they exist 
solely in the non-fatty tissues of the seed. The production and refining of 
the oil have now grown to be a great industry and have already added much to 
the wealth of the cotton growers and the comfort and nutrition of the people in 
general. 

Magnitude oj the Cottonseed Oil Industry. — The average cotton crop of the 
United States is nearly 12,000,000 bales of about 500 pounds each. For every 
bale of cotton there is produced 1,000 pounds of seed. This would make the 
average cottonseed crop of the country about 6,000,000 tons. It is estimated 
that not over two-thirds of this is used in the mills; this would make about 
4,000,000 tons. The a\erage yield of 40 gallons to a ton shows the produc- 
tion of crude oil to be 3,200,000 barrels of 50 gallons each. This oil in refining 
loses on the average about 8 percent, which would leave 2,944,000 barrels of 
refined oil for edible and other purposes. Not less than two-thirds of this oil is 
used for edible purposes. A conservative estimate would place the quantity 
used for food between two and two and a half million barrels per annum. The 
quantity varies with the prices of other fats. 

Cotton seed is brought to the mills from the gins either by rail in box cars 
or in wagons. On arrival at the mills, it is stored in large sheds, known as seed 
houses. A single seed house will often contain as much as 5,000 to 10,000 tons. 
The seed is carried into the mill by means of conveyers. It first goes through 
coarse screens ".'hich remove the greater part of the trash and sand, after which 
it is passed over magnetized iron plates which remove nails and pieces of iron 



398 VEGETABLE OILS AND EATS, AND NUTS. 

which may have accidentally gotten into the seed. After the seed is thoroughly 
cleaned it passes through gins known as linters, which remove from 40 to 
50 pounds of short staple cotton known in the trade as " linters." This cotton is 
used for preparing cotton batts, mattresses, etc. Conveyers carry the seed 
from the linters to the huUers, which are rapidly revolving drums covered 
with cutting knives which chop up the seed. From the hullers the cut-up seeds 
pass over a series of screens where the meats are shaken out while the conveyors 
carry the hulls to a storehouse or to the furnace if not used for cattle food. 
The meats are carried to the crusher rolls, through which they pass. These 
rolls break up oil cells to a large extent and leave the meats in a finely divided 
condition. From the crusher rolls the meats are carried to steam-jacketed 
kettles provided with agitators. There they are cooked to the proper point, 
which is determined by feel and smell. From the heaters the meats are dropped 
into cake formers, where they are made into the shape of cakes between camel's 
hair press cloths in which they are placed in the heavy hydraulic presses 
which press out the oil. Good press-room work will give out 45 gallons of oil 
to the ton and leave in the cake between 6 and 7 percent of oil. 

The crude oil as it leaves the presses varies in color from light sherry to deep 
claret. The variation is due to local conditions affecting the ^eed, also the 
manner of treatment in cooking. The flavor of the crude oil varies greatly 
in the different parts of the country. That made in Georgia and Carolina has 
a strong flavor of peanut, while that made in the Mississippi Valley and Texas 
has more the flavor of sweet Indian corn. 

Further Details. — The cotton seed from various sources is put through 
a screen to take out the bolls and coarse material. The seed is then put through 
a gin to remove as far as possible any remaining lint, of which about 20 pounds 
per ton of seed are obtained. The clean seed is next sent to a huUer composed 
of revolving cylinders covered with knives, which cut up both seed and hull. 
The chips are then conveyed to a screen placed on a vibrating frame, through 
which the kernels fall. The hulls are carried by an endless belt to the furnaces, 
where they are burned. The kernels of the seed are conveyed to crusher rolls, 
where they are ground to a fine meal. The meal is then sent to a heater, where 
it remains from twenty to forty minutes. These heaters have a temperature of 
210 to 215 degrees F. 

The hot meal is formed into cakes by machinery; these are wrapped in cloth 
and placed in the press. About sixteen pounds of meal are put in each cake. 
The cakes are placed in a hydraulic press, where a pressure of from 3,000 to 
4,000 pounds per square inch is applied. The press is also kept warm. The 
expressed cakes contain only abov 10 percent of oil. The cake is sold as cattle 
food or for fertilizing purposes. 1 he crude oil as thus expressed contains about 
1.5 percent of free acid, also a notable quantity of water and solid matters in 
suspension. The manufacture of cottonseed oil usually takes place in the 



COTTONSEED OIL. 



399 



winter months immediately after the ginning of the cotton is completed. The 
oil is likely to become rancid if kept unpurified until the hot months. The 
crude oil is collected in oil tanks at the press and shipped to the refining 
houses. In the winter when the tanks are sent to the north where the temper- 
ature is very low the contents of the tank become solid unless protected from the 
action of the cold. 

Refining Process. — The first step in the refining of a crude cottonseed oil is 
to have it stored in large and deep tanks where it remains at rest for a proper 
length of time. During this period of rest the heavy mechanical impurities 
and water settle to the bottom of the tank and are typically known as "foots." 
The oily portions of these foots are used in the manufacture of soap and for other 
technical purposes. The tanks may be furnished with steam jackets in order to 




Fig. 57.— Removing the Oil Cakes from a Cottonsked Vn-Ess.— {Courtesy of Daviil Jl'i-sson.) 



keep the oil at a proper temperature. During the process of deposition the oil 
is also treated with an alkali to neutralize the free acid which it contains. The 
precipitate formed by this process together with the principal part of the soaps 
produced are recovered with the "foots." A solution of caustic or carbonated 
soda is one generally employed in this process of refining. If the admixture 
of caustic soda occurs at the time of filling the tank, the contents are kept well 
agitated for a sufficient length of time to secure an intimate mi.xture of the oil 
with the lye. Usually the deposition of the solid matter is accomplished in from 
two to three days. The supernatant oil is of a light yellow color, but not suf- 
ficiently pure to admit of being used for edible purposes. This yellow oil is 



400 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

treated again in a similar manner and allowed to settle a second time, or it is 
mixed with some substance which will facilitate the operation, and subjected 
to filtration b\- means of which a perfectly bright oil is secured. If, during this 
process, the oil has never been chilled so as to separate a part of its stearin, 
it is called summer oil, as an indication that it only remains clear during the hot 
weather. Oils intended for winter use are chilled before finally being put into 
packages, and the stearin which is separated at this low temperature is re- 
moved by filtration. The residual oil which is capable of remaining liquid at a 
low temperature by reason of the removal of a portion of its stearin, as above 
described, is known in the trade as winter oil. In this process of filtration ful- 
ler's earth is frequently employed, which not only promotes the filtration but 
also absorbs and retains a large part of the color of the oil, which thus treated is 
almost colorless. Where cottonseed oil is used for mixing with lard it is 
highly important that it be practically free of color. When, however, it is 
used for mixing with oleomargarine the more yellow it is, the more highly prized. 
In the final preparation of cottonseed oil for edible purposes, particularly 
if it is to be used as a salad oil, a special process of refining is advisable in order 
to remove the last traces of foreign matter and to secure freedom from any 
distinctive taste or objectionable color. To this end many of the steps already 
described are repeated, or perhaps it might be better expressed by saying that 
the oil is subjected to a second refining process, the reagents already named 
being used in var\'ing quantities, usually with the application of a gentle heat, 
and the mass is then left to settle until a clear, light, greenish golden oil is ob- 
tained. Unless the oil is refined in this particular way it is apt to develop a 
disagreeable odor on cooking and to impart an unpleasant taste to articles in 
which it is cooked or to which it is added. Sometimes it is necessary, in order 
to remove all of these disagreeable and objectionable qualities, to refilter with 
fuller's earth until the residual oil is almost colorless, but the fuller's earth is 
apt to leave a flavor in the filtered oil, and this is in turn removed b}- treatment 
with steam. The details of this deodorizing process vary and are regarded as 
trade secrets. The oil so prepared is largely used in the preparation of sub- 
stitutes for lard and similar cooking fats. Such oil is a great improvement 
over the ordinary summer }'ellow and bleached products, but falls short of 
being an ideal oil. Within the last few years a cottonseed oil has been put on 
the market in which the objections to the use of cottonseed oil as food have been 
as nearly overcome as the chemical nature of the oil will permit. The oil pro- 
duced by this process is practically odorless and tasteless and can be used 
satisfactoril}- for all cuhnary purposes. Large quantities are used by the 
bakers in place of lard. It is difficult to compare this doubly refined oil 
with other edible oils and especially with olive oil. It may be said, however, 
that such an oil is of excellent quality and perfectly satisfactory to those who 
have not acquired a taste for olive oil. The introduction of wholesome and 



HAZELNUT OIL. 40I 

palatable vegetable oils at a lower price than olive oil will promote a more 
general consumption of such oils without any unfair competition with olive 
oil which will continue to hold its place as the premier table oil of the world. 

Extraction 0} Oil by Means of Petroleum. — The light oils which are produced 
in the refining of petroleum and commonly called gasoline are typical solvents 
for fat and oil. Instead of extracting the oil by the pressure process, as de- 
scribed above, a practically complete extraction may be secured by successive 
treatments with the light petroleum oils. The principle of the process is 
exactly that of the extraction of sugar from sugar beets by hot water in the 
process of the manufacture of beet sugar. The cottonseed cake or pressed 
meal is broken into fragments of approximate size, placed in tanks, and 
treated with successive portions of light petroleum. The extraction is arranged 
in such a way as to be a continuous one, that is, the vessels for handling the oil 
cakes are arranged en batterie as in the case of beet sugar extraction. By 
this method all except a mere trace of the oil is extracted from the cake. The 
light petroleum oils are subsequently separated from the cottonseed oil by 
distillation and are used again in the process. There is little loss of petroleum 
oil. Where cottonseed oil is used for technical purposes there is no objection to 
this method of extraction, and much is to be said in its favor since greater yields 
of oil are secured. WTien used for edible purposes, however, petroleum ex- 
tracted cottonseed oil is not of as high a quality as that extracted by pressure. 
It is difficult to remove all traces of petroleum, especially the odor, and there are 
constituents extracted by petroleum which are not mixed with the oil when it is 
separated by pressure. It is advisable, therefore, that cottonseed oil used for 
edible purposes be cold-press extracted and not petroleum extracted oil. 

Standard for Cottonseed Oil. — The official standards for cottonseed oil are as 
follows: 

"Cottonseed oil is the oil obtained from the seeds of cotton plants {Gos- 
sypium hirsntiim L., G. Barbadense L., or G. herbaceum L.) and subjected to 
the usual refining processes; it is free from rancidity; has a refractive index 
(25 degrees C.) not less than one and forty-seven hundred ten-thousandths 
(1.4700) and not exceeding one and forty-seven and twenty-five ten-thou- 
sandths (1.4725); and an iodin number not less than one hundred and four 
(104) and not exceeding one hundred and ten (no). 

" ' Winter-yellow' cottonseed oil is expressed cottonseed oil from which 
a portion of the stearin has been separated by chilling and pressure." 

Hazelnut Oil. — The oil of the hazelnut is to a limited extent used for edible 
purposes. It is extracted from the seed of the hazelnut tree (Corylus avellana L). 
The seeds are very rich in oil and are said to contain from 50 to 60 percent 
thereof. The oil is almost free of stearin, being said to contain only about 
one percent. The rest of it consists chiefly of olein, there being but 12 percent 
nf Dalmitin. While this is an edible oil, it is used chiefly in the map"<"acture 
27 



402 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

of perfumes and as a lubricating oil. Its high price, however, excludes it 
from any general use, except for special purposes. Its specific gravity at 15 
degrees is .916, and it absorbs about 86 percent of its weight of iodin. 

Olive Oil. — By far the most important of edible oils, both on account of its 
abundance and of its palatability, is olive oil. Olive oil has been used from the 
earliest historical times and probably was the first vegetable oil that was manu- 
factured to any considerable extent in the early history of civilization. Its 
qualities have maintained for it a market among the nations of the world in spite 
of the fact that many other palatable and wholesome vegetable oils have been 
produced which, while not inferior in nutritive value to olive oil, are so very 
much cheaper that unless the olive oil possessed peculiar properties it would 
be forced out of the market. Its delicate flavor, extreme palatability, high 
nutritive power, and other general characteristics have maintained for it a 
market against the strongest competition. 

Olive oil is procured from the fruit of the olive tree {Olea Eiiropcca L.), and 
when it is to be used for edible purposes the method of extraction is by pressure. 
When olive oil is used for technical purposes, such as lubricating and the manu- 
facture of soap, it is very commonly secured by extraction with a volatile 
solvent, such as petroleum. The olive is very rich in oil, the quantity varying 
from 40 to 60 percent. The quality of olive oil upon the market varies in a 
very great degree according to the country from which it comes, the degree 
of maturity of the olive from which the oil is extracted, the method of expression 
employed, and the character of the refining process to which the expressed oil 
has been subjected. Botanically, there are very many varieties of olive trees 
and thus nature would impart to the olive peculiarities due to the origin of the 
oil itself. The environment also has a great deal to do with the character of the 
olive and necessarily with the character of the oil produced. The olive tree 
flourishes best in semi-arid regions where the rainfall is not very abundant and 
the sunlight is not greatly obscured by clouds and the heat is reasonably high. 
The principal regions, at the present time, from which the commercial olive 
oils are obtained are Spain, Italy, Greece, southern France, and southern 
California. 

Adulteration of Olive Oil. — By reason of its great value as an edible oil and 
its high price there is no one of the edible oils which has been subjected to 
such a systematic and extensive adulteration. By reason of the resemblance in 
general character of many of the edible vegetable oils to olive oil, adulterations 
of the most extensive character may be practiced without indicating to the eye 
any change in composition. Nearly all the edible vegetable oils have the light 
amber tint which is characteristic of many grades of olive oil, and the difference 
between the color of the olive oil and other edible oils is not greater than the 
difference between the tints of the various olive oils themselves. The connois- 
seur of extremely delicate taste is usually able to distinguish by the flavor any 




Olives 
i. mission 2. sevillano 

From Yearbook, U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture, iSgy 



OLIVE OIL. 403 

given edible oil from olive oil. If, however, any given edible oil be mixed with 
olive oil in small proportions not exceeding 25 to 30 percent, even the skilled 
taster will be deceived. In such cases only the chemist who has much skill and 
practice is able to detect the adulteration. 

Adulteration with Cottonseed Oil. — In the United States the principal adul- 
teration of olive oil is with cottonseed oil. This is an oil which has already been 
described as of high nutritive value and to which no objection can be made 
from any hygienic or dietetic point of view. It is made in great quantities in 
the United States, and when subjected to the most careful refining processes 
can be offered to the consumer at a price probably not greater than one- 
fifth that of high-grade olive oil. It becomes the ideal material with which .to 
adulterate olive oil. This adulteration extends often to complete substitution, 
the oil in question, though represented as olive oil both by the dealer and the 
label, containing no trace whatever of that substance. Such bare-faced sub- 
stitution has apparently almost passed away under the quickening ethical sense 
of the manufacturer and merchant and the character of the national and state 
laws. Many of the oils which are used to adulterate olive oil have a greater 
specific gravity, hence whenever the specific gravity of an olive oil at 15 degrees 
goes above .917 it is ground for suspicion of adulteration though by no means a 
positive proof. The presence of cottonseed oil in olive oil is easily detected by 
the Halphen test, which has already been described. In Europe a very com- 
mon method of adulteration is with sesame oil, the properties of which 
are described below. Peanut oil is also extensivel}^ used for the same pur- 
pose. These two oils are easily detected when mixed with olive oil. The 
sesame oil is distinguished by the color reaction to be described. Peanut oil 
is distinguished by the saponification of the oil, separation of the fatty acids, and 
consequent crystallization of the arachidic acid, which produces a crystalline 
form which is readily recognized by an expert. Rapeseed oil hnd poppy- 
seed oil are also extensively used as adulterants in Europe, but not very exten- 
sively in this country. Nearly all the oils which are employed in the adultera- 
tion of olive oil have high iodin numbers, and therefore whenever an iodin num- 
ber is above 89 or 90 it may be regarded as a suspicious circumstance. There 
are, however, many genuine olive oils which would be condemned as adulter- 
ated if this test alone were employed. In addition to the oils mentioned, small 
quantities of castor oil, lard oil, fish oil, and even of petroleum oil, have been 
found as adulterants in olive oil. These, however, occur very infrequently, 
and it is not likely that they have been employed in this country. 

If the examination shows that a given sample is free of cottonseed, sesame, 
and peanut oil, and other characteristics of the sample are those of olive oil, it 
may be safely accepted as a pure sample. 

Color oj Olive Oil. — The color of the freshly expressed olive oil is usually 
green or dark from the chlorophyl and other coloring matter derived from 



404 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

the olive. When refined and ready for commerce the oil is of a yellowish-green 
tint usually. Sometimes the oil obtained from the first pressing is almost col- 
orless, but as a rule an amber-green tint is observed in most of the commercial 
varieties. Lower grade oils are often decidedly green, but still edible, due to the 
admixture of chlorophyl from the green olive employed. The flavor of olive 
oil is a pleasant and agreeable one, but diff'ers greatly in oils from different 
sources. The further north the oils are produced the less pronounced the 
flavor and the sweeter the taste. The more southern oils, such as are ob- 
tained in the south of Italy and Spain, have a stronger and more pronounced 
flavor which, however, is very much prized by those accustomed to it. Large 
quantities of olive oil are produced also in the French and other possessions in 
the north of Africa. These, however, have a stronger flavor than those pro- 
duced upon the continent of Europe and are not so highly prized when used alone. 
Olive oil is almost free of stearin, being composed chiefly of olein with some 
palmitin. The amount of free acid in olive oil varies with the character of 
the olives employed and the age of the oil. On long standing, without be- 
coming rancid, olive oil develops a large quantity of free acid. It is a com- 
mon supposition that rancidity in an oil depends upon the development of free 
fatty acid, but this is not the case. If an oil be free of rancidity it may contain 
a large percentage of free acid without becoming inedible. It is not uncommon 
to find in olive oil as high as 3 percent or more of free acid. This is due to the 
fact that in the refining of olive oil alkalies are not usually employed, and there- 
fore any free acid which the natural olive possesses is not neutralized by the 
alkalies, as is the case in the refining of cottonseed oil and some other vege- 
table oils. 

Constituents oj Olive Oil. — Olive oil consists almost exclusively of olein and 
palmitin. There is very little, if any, stearin in the highest grade oil. If all 
the solid fatty acid at ordinary temperature be regarded as derived from 
palmitin, the quantity of palmitin may be considered as varying from 3 to 20 
percent, according to the origin and character of the sample. While the olein 
and palmitin, therefore, may be regarded as the principal constituents of olive 
oil, there are others, also, existing in smaller quantities. The quantity of free 
fatty acid varies very greatly in olive oil. It is highly important that the oil be 
separated from the pomace as speedily as possible, since any fermentation of the 
pomace increases the quantity of free fatty acid. The largest number of high- 
grade oils contain less than three percent of free fatty acid, but a larger quantity, 
as has been stated, does not render the oil inedible unless actual fermentation 
has taken place producing rancidity. Rancidity appears to be the result of the 
generation of other acids than oleic, and also aldehyds, formic, butyric, acetic, 
and oenanthylic acids have been found. Olive oil is a typical non-drying oil 
and therefore shows less rise in temperature when mixed with sulfuric acid 
than other vegetable oils. The specific gravity of olive oil at 15 degrees may 



OLIVE OIL. 405 

be placed at the average figure of .917. It sometimes falls as low as .912 and 
rises as high as .919. It absorbs from 80 to 90 percent of its weight of iodin. 
In some samples the weight of iodin absorbed is less, falling as low as 77 per- 
cent, but this is only in very extraordinary cases. Occasionally it goes above 90 
percent. Probably the number 87 would represent about the mean percen- 
tage of iodin absorbed by m^ost edible oils. 

Method of Preparation. — The very finest quality of olive oil is that derived 
from the hand-picked olive. Just as in the preparation of fruits for the market 
the very best qualities are carefully picked one by one from the tree, so in the 
preparation of the highest grade of oil the olives are picked one by one, only 
those of uniform maturity and character being selected. This specially 
selected fruit is pressed cold, and the first running from this pressure collected 
separately is designated in English by the term "virgin oil." Virgin olive oil, 
therefore, ranks the highest in quality. Unfortunately the use of the term for 
commercial purposes has not been restricted to the quality of oil to which it 
actually belongs, and at the present time the expression "pure virgin olive oil" 
which is placed upon the bottles or containers is no guarantee that this quality 
of oil is found therein. In fact, this expression upon the label has been found 
in many instances of olive oil highly adulterated and belonging to the cheapest 
grade. It would be impossible here to enumerate all the different names by 
which olive oil is found upon the market. The consumer has to depend for 
protection upon his knowledge of the character of the dealer and hereafter, 
to a greater extent than ever before, he may be protected by the application of 
the pure food laws of the various countries. 

After the first pressing from which the best oil is secured the resulting pomace 
is removed from the press, heated or mixed with hot water, and again subjected 
to a much higher pressure from which a second quantity of oil is secured, still 
suitable for edible purposes but of a lower quality than that first produced. 
While the oils which are obtained in this way are used largely for technical pur- 
poses such as lubricating, soap making, etc., they are not infrequently employed 
as edible oils. 

In the largest establishments for the preparation of olive oil the kernels are 
separated from the pulp, but in the smaller works the pulp and kernel are 
pressed together. Finally the residue from the second pressure may be dried 
and extracted with bisulfid of carbon or petroleum ether, by which means 
practically all the residual oil which the cake contains may be secured. Oils 
extracted in this manner are wholly unfit for edible purposes anci are used or 
should be used solely for technical purposes, among which soap making is 
perhaps the most important. 

Olive-kernel Oil. — An oil is extracted from the kernel of the olive which as 
regards some of its physical and chemical properties resembles olive oil itself. 
It is usually not considered suitable for edible purposes. Its taste resembles 



4o6 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

more that of almond oil than that of olive oil. Some of this oil is doubtless 
mixed with olive oil when the pulp and kernel of the olive are pressed together, 
but the quantity thus secured is not very great and does not introduce into the 
substance anything which gives a specific reaction. It is by no means as high 
a grade of oil as that expressed from the flesh of the olive alone. 

Peanut Oil. — Peanut oil is the refined expressed oil of the peanut, prepared 
in the manner above described, and is highly valued as a table or salad oil and, 
unfortunately, is used very often as an adulterant of olive oil, the mixture being 
sold under the name of the more valuable of its constituents. 

Peanut oil contains arachidic acid, which in combination with glycerine forms 
one of the constituents which serves to distinguish it particularly from other 
edible oils. There is no other edible oil which contains arachidic acid in 
sufficient quantities to lead to any mistake concerning its relationship to pea- 
nut oil. 

Renard's Test for Peanut Oil as Modified by Tohnan. — Place 20 grams of 
oil in an Erlenmeyer flask. Saponify with alcoholic potash, neutralize 
exactly with dilute acetic acid, using phenolphthalein as indicator, and wash 
into a 500 c.c. flask containing a boiling mixture of 100 c.c. of water and 120 c.c. 
of a 20 percent lead acetate solution. Boil for a minute, and then cool the pre- 
cipitated soap by immersing the flask in water, occasionally giving it a whirling 
motion to cause the soap to stick to the sides of the flask. After the flask has 
cooled, the water and excess of lead can be poured off and the soap washed 
with cold water and with 90 percent (by volume) alcohol. Now add 200 c.c. 
of ether, cork the flask, and allow to stand for some time until the soap is 
disintegrated, then heat on the water bath, using a reflux condenser, and boil 
for about five minutes. In the oils most of the soap will be dissolved, while 
in lards, which contain so much stearin, part will be left undissolved. Cool 
the ether solution of soap down to from 15° to 17° C, and let stand until all 
the insoluble soaps have crystallized out — about twelve hours are required. 

Filter and thoroughly wash the precipitate with ether. Save the filtrate for 
the determination of the iodin number of the liquid fatty acids by the Muter 
method. The soaps on the filter are washed back into the flask by means of a 
stream of hot water acidified with hydrochloric acid. Add an excess of dilute 
hydrochloric acid, partially fill the flask with hot water, and heat until fatty 
acids form a clear, oily layer. Fill the flask with hot water, allow the fatty 
acids to harden and separate from the precipitated lead chlorid; wash, drain, 
repeat washing with hot water, and dissolve the fatty acids in 100 c.c. of boiling 
90 percent (by volume) alcohol. Cool down to 15° C, shaking thoroughly to 
aid crystallization. From 5 to 10 percent of peanut oil can be detected by this 
method, as it effects a complete separation of the soluble acid from the in- 
soluble, which interferes with the crystallization of the arachidic acid. Filter, 
wash the precipitate twice with 10 c.c. of 90 percent (by volume) alcohol. 



RAPE OIL. 407 

and then with alcohol of 70 percent (by volume). Dissolve off the filter with 
boiling absolute alcohol, evaporate to dryness in a weighed dish, dry and 
weigh. Add to this weight 0.0025 gram for each 10 c.c. of 90 percent alcohol 
used in the crystaUization and washing if done at 15° C; if done at 20°, 0.0045 
gram for each 10 c.c. The melting point of arachidic acid obtained in this 
way is between 71° and 72° C. Twenty times the weight of arachidic acid will 
give the approximate amount of peanut oil present. No examination for 
adulterants in olive oil is complete without making the test for peanut oil. 

The above process can only be successfully carried out by an experienced 
chemist, and even then if only small quantities of peanut oil are present, namely, 
not to exceed five percent, the results obtained may not be exact. 

Peanut oil is obtained from the peanut by the ordinary method of hydraulic 
pressure. The first cold pressing furnishes the oil of finest character for 
edible purposes. Subsequent pressure or pressvire with heat furnishes a greater 
quantity of oil but of inferior palatability. Peanut oil is highly prized as a 
salad oil either alone or mixed with other oil, notably olive oil and sesame. 
The oil is purified by settling followed by filtration and by the processes 
usually practiced with other oils of vegetable origin. The oil is easily and 
completely digested and furnishes an abundant source of heat and energy to 
the system. The number of calories produced by the combustion of one gram 
of oil, either by ordinary burning or by oxidation in the body, is about 
9,300. 

The cake which is left after the pressing out of the oil is very highly nu- 
tritious, containing still considerable quantities of oil, the whole of the protein 
matter, and other digestible solids of the nut. 

As before stated, it is extensively used as cattle food and as fertilizer. It 
may also be ground to a meal and used as human food, but furnishes an 
unbalanced ration in which the protein is far in excess. 

Rape Oil (Colza Oil) (Brassica campestris L.). — There are different kinds 
of oil which belong to the general class which is known as rape oil or rapeseed oil. 
The different kinds are derived from different varieties of Brassica campes- 
tris. The English names of the three most important varieties are — (i) colza 
oil, derived from the seeds of Brassica campestris; (2) rape oil, derived from the 
seeds of Brassica napus L. ; (3) riibsen oil, derived from the seeds of Brassica 
rapa L. The character of the oil also varies according to the manner of its 
extraction. The first pressings from the cold powdered seeds is of a finer 
quality for salad purposes than the heavier later pressings from the hot seeds. 
The oil is also sometimes chilled and the crystallized stearin separated in order 
to keep it in a liquid state during the winter time, so that the winter and 
summer varieties are sometimes recognized in trade. There is, however, no 
difference in the other characteristics of the oil. 



4o8 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

The specific gravity of rape oil at 15.5 degrees C, compared with water at 
the same temperature, is about .916. The variations from this mean number 
are not very great. Rapeseed oil absorbs almost its exact weight of iodin, — 
the average iodin number being not far from 99. 

The Chief Adulterations 0} Rape Oil — The chief adulteration of rape oil con- 
sists in the admixture of cheaper or flavoring oils. Among those which are 
often used in the adulteration of rape oil are linseed oil, hempseed oil, poppy- 
seed oil, chamomile oil, cottonseed oil, the various mustard oils, refined fish 
and blubber oils, rosin oil, and paraffin. Some of these adulterations, it is 
seen, cannot be added to rapeseed oil when used for edible purposes. The 
chief adulteration of rapeseed oil, when intended for edible purposes, is the 
addition of cottonseed oil. The detection of these various adulterations,, 
with the exception of that of cottonseed oil, can be accomplished only by an 
expert chemist. The presence of cottonseed oil can be detected by the appli- 
cation of the Halphen test already described. 

Technique oj Extraction. — The extraction of oil from the rape seed is not 
different from that of other oily seeds. It is either extracted by pressure, which 
is the proper way always when it is to be used for edible purposes, or when used 
for technical purposes it may be extracted by means of carbon bisulfid or 
petroleum ether. When extracted by pressure for edible purposes the oil 
should be refined by a similar treatment to that applied to cottonseed oil and 
finally filtered, preferably after mixing with fuller's earth or other similar 
material, in order that it may be perfectly pure and bright and free from sus- 
pended matter which interferes with its utility as an edible oil. 

A very common treatment of the expressed oil, in order to coagulate and 
separate the mucilaginous matter which it contains, is with sulfuric acid. 
This acid has the very valuable property of coagulating this class of bodies. 
When treated with sulfuric acid it is necessary that the oil be thoroughly 
washed many times in pure water in order to remove the last trace of the acid. 

The residue or oil cake is prized as a cattle food or as a fertilizer. The 
average content of oil in rape seed is about 37 percent. 

Sesame Oil. — Sesame oil is very commonly used for salad oil and for the other 
purposes to which the edible oils are devoted. It is also known as gingili oil 
and teel oil. Sesame oil is obtained by pressure from the seed of the sesame 
plant, — Sesamum orientdJe L. 

Sesame oil possesses a light amber color when properly made, is free from any 
unpleasant odor, has an agreeable taste, and when expressed cold produces what 
is known as the cold-drawn oil which is regarded by many as of equal palatable 
value with olive oil. Sesame oil, in addition to containing stearin, palmitin, and 
olein, also contains a small quantity of a glycerid which exists in large quantities 
in flaxseed oil, namely, linolein. When prepared for edible purposes it con- 



SUNFLOWER OIL. 409 

tains only a small quantity of free acid, is free from rancidity, clear, and brilliant 
in appearance and has a sweet agreeable taste. The specific gravity of sesame 
oil at 15 degrees C. varies from .9225 to .9237. It absorbs from 103 to 108 
percent of its weight of iodin and has a refractive index at 15 degrees of about 
1.4748. 

Adulteration oj Sesame Oil. — Some of the other vegetable oils are cheaper than 
sesame and are added to it for the purpose of adulteration and cheapening the 
product. Among the most common oils used for the adulteration of sesame are 
poppyseed oil, cottonseed oil, and rape oil. The presence of cottonseed oil 
in sesame oil is easily distinguished by the Halphen test already given. The 
presence of poppyseed oil is revealed by the high iodin number and the high 
degree of heat produced when mixed with sulfuric acid. 

Only the best variety of cold -drawn sesame oil is used for edible purposes and 
for making oleomargarine. The inferior qualities are used in soap making, 
the making of perfumes, etc., and the lowest quality of oil is used for burning 
purposes. 

Characteristic Reaction. — A test which is known as Baudouin's is extremely 
delicate and reliable and is easily applied. It consists in the development of a 
red color when a small quantity of sesame oil is treated with hydrochloric acid 
in the presence of furfural. The test is easily carried out as follows: Place a 
few drops of a two percent solution of furfural in a test-tube with 10 cubic 
centimeters of sesame oil or the oil to be tested for sesame and 10 cubic centi- 
meters of hydrochloric acid of 1.19 specific gravity, and shake the mixture well 
for half a minute. When the tube is left at rest, if sesame oil be present the 
aqueous acid layer which forms will have a distinct crimson color. Any 
coloration which is produced by other oils is entirely distinct from this one and 
therefore can be easily distinguished. 

Geographical Distribution. — The sesame plant is grown chiefly for com- 
mercial purposes in India, China, Japan, and West Africa. The technical 
preparation of the oil, in so far as is known, is not practiced in the United 
States. It is pressed and prepared for commerce chiefly in France. The seeds 
are rich in oil, yielding a larger percentage by pressure or extraction than most 
of the oil-bearing seeds. 

Sunflower Oil. — The oil extracted from the seed of the sunflower is of high 
quality for edible purposes. Although not in general use in this country, it is 
very extensively used in Russia and some other parts of Europe. There is 
every reason to believe that a profitable industry could be established in the 
preparation of edible oils from sunflower seeds. The plant grows in the great- 
est luxuriance in nearly all parts of the country, and the yield is suflaciently 
great to make it an object of more interest to oiur agricultural population than 
it is at the present time. 



4IO VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

The oil is obtained from the seed of the sunflower (Helianthus annitus L.). 
It is of a pure amber tint with an agreeable odor and pleasant taste. As has 
already been said it is grown largely in Russia and also in Indo-China. The 
seeds are very rich in oil. Before expression the hulls should be removed, since 
these form a porous substance, and if the seeds are crushed with the hulls large 
quantities of oil are absorbed and cannot be recovered. 

The method of preparation is the same as that for other edible oils, 
the kernel, after the removal of the hull, being ground and cold-pressed 
for the highest grade. By heating and renewing pressure lower grades of oil 
are secured suitable for soap making. Where all the oil is required the ex- 
traction with bisulfid of carbon or gasoline is advised. Such oils, however, are 
not suitable for edible purposes because of the difficulty of removing the last 
traces of the solvent. The specific gravity of sunflower oil at 15 degrees is 
approximately .925. It absorbs a very high percentage of iodin, and in this 
respect it may be classified with the drying oils. Its iodin number ranges 
from 120 to 130. No specific color reactions have been established by means 
of which sunflower oil may be readily distinguished from the other edible oils. 

In fact sunflower oil has not been subjected, by any means, to as critical 
a study as many other vegetable oils. 

Vegetable Fats. 

The fatty principles in vegetables which are solid at ordinary temperatures 
are commonly termed fats instead of oils. They present, as a rule, a soft 
mass, usually of an amber tint and somewhat of the consistence of butter. 
Only a few of these solid fats or semi-solid fats are used for food. Among them 
the most important are palm-nut oil or coconut oil or fat, though the fat of the 
cacao also may be regarded as belonging to this group. These solid or semi- 
solid fats are used to a considerable extent for edible purposes in many parts of 
the world. Coconut fat and cacao fat are used very extensively in this 
country either in a pure state or in chocolate or cocoa. 

Cacao Butter. — Cacao butter is the semi-solid fat obtained by pressure from 
cacao beans, the seeds of the cacao tree (Theobroma cacao L.). These beans 
are extremely rich in fat, the content of which varies from 35 to 50 percent. 
On a large scale the cacao beans are roasted, ground, and the fat expressed 
while still hot by hydraulic pressure. In order to remove the free acid which 
it contains the carbonates of the alkalies are mixed with the material after grind- 
ing and before extraction. In these cases the expressed fat naturally does not 
contain any free acid, though the soaps which are formed by this process are 
apt to contaminate the expressed fat. 

Adulterations. — By reason of its high price cacao butter is often adulterated 
by the addition of various fats usually of a vegetable character. Those most 
generally employed are the stearin derived from the coconut fat and the palm- 



COCONUT OIL OR BUTTER. 4I I 

nut fat. The addition of ordinary edible vegetable oils is easily detected by the 
usual chemical tests and is especially recognized by the increase in the per- 
centage of iodin absorbed. They also reduce the melting point of cacao butter, 
and for this reason these oils, with the exception of coconut, are not used 
very extensivelv as adulterants. Beeswax and paraffine wax are also used to 
some extent as adulterants, and when used in connection with vegetable oils 
they serve to keep the melting point from going too low. Tallow has also 
been used quite extensively as an adulterant. The detection of these adul- 
terants is so difficult as to be accomplished only by a skilled chemist. 

Composition. — Cacao butter is composed chiefly of stearin and . palmitin, 
though other fats and oils are present in small quantities. Although it is 
generally supposed that cacao butter does not tend to become rancid, this is a 
mistake, since, when exposed to the conditions which favor rancidity, the fer- 
mentation which produces this condition takes place in the butter, though some- 
what more slowly and more incompletely than in many other fats. The specific 
gravity of cacao butter at 50 degrees C. is .892. It absorbs about 35 percent 
of its weight of iodin. It has a much lower melting point than palm fats and 
even lower than butter. Its melting point varies from 30 to 33 degrees C. 
Cacao butter has some of the properties of ordinary butter and has been recom- 
mended as a substitute therefor, but it is not likely that it will ever come into 
common use both because it is less desirable than butter and also because of its 
high price. 

Properties. — Cacao butter has a light amber tint and tends to become 
bleached on long standing. It has a very pleasant flavor, reminding one of the 
flavor of the preparations of chocolate. At ordinary temperature, 70 degrees 
F., it is quite solid and sometimes even brittle. 

Coconut Oil or Butter. — This is a very abundant natural fat and is 
obtained from the kernel of the coconut, especially the two species Cocos 
nucijera L. and Cocos btityracea L. At ordinary temperatures coconut oil 
is of the consistency of fat. Its taste is pleasant, and it possesses an odor which 
is not disagreeable or undesirable. It differs from cacao butter in the ease 
with which it becomes rancid, at which time it takes on a very disagreeable 
flavor and taste. The coconut oil of commerce is distinguished by different 
names, according to the country in which it is made. 

Cochin oil is a variety which is regarded as of the finest quality, being almost 
colorless, and is prepared in Malabar. 

Ceylon oil is another very important variety made in the neighborhood of 
and imported from Ceylon. It is regarded as somewhat inferior to Cochin oil, 
due probably to less care being taken in the cultivation of the plant and the 
preparation of the oil. 

Another variety of coconut oil is known as copra oil. The term " copra " 
is applied to the sun-dried or kiln-dried kernel of the coconut. In this dried 



412 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

state the fruit can be shipped in bulk and large quantities of it can be sent to 
Europe or other countries, where the oil is either obtained by extraction or by 
compression in a hydraulic press. This is regarded as of the least desirable 
quality. 

Coconut oil resembles palm-nut oil in its chemical composition, with the 
exception of the relative proportion of palmitic acid. The specific gravity of 
coconut oil or fat at 40 degrees C. is about .912 and reduced to 15 degrees 
C. about .925. Coconut oil absorbs very little iodin, which is one of its principal 
characteristic chemical properties. The quantity of iodin absorbed may be 
taken as about eight percent of the weight of the oil. Coconut oil is one of the 
vegetable fats which resembles butter to some extent in the high content of vola- 
tile acid which it contains. If, under given conditions, butter may be regarded 
as having a volatile acid number of 27, coconut oil will have upon the same 
scale a volatile acid number of about 7, whereas ordinary vegetable oils and 
fats will have less than 0.5 on a similar scale. Coconut oil may be regarded 
as the one edible oil which approximates in constitution ordinary butter. 
Coconut oil has been used very extensively as an adulterant for oleomargarine^ 
since by reason of its high volatile acid it brings that substance much nearer to 
the composition of butter or indicates a larger percentage of butter therein than 
is actually present. While it is used extensively as human food its principal 
value is for soap making. It appears as an edible fat under various names, 
such as "vegetable butter," " lactine," "nucoline," "palmin," etc. Coconut 
oil is also very extensively used in the manufacture of candies and confections. 

Adulterations. — Coconut oil is rarely adulterated. About the only adulter- 
ation of any consequence is that of the admixture with palm-kernel oil, which 
has properties very much like that of coconut oil. These two oils are or- 
dinarily about the same price and therefore there is no inducement to practice 
adulteration. 

Palm Oil or Fat. — This oil is obtained from the fleshy part of the fruit of 
the palm tree Elccis Guineensis Jacq. and Elccis melanococca Gaertn. Ex- 
tensive groves of these trees are found in Africa and also in the Philippines. 
In Africa they grow particularly upon the western coast. There is a large 
number of varieties of palm trees that afford this fat, but the two mentioned are 
the principal ones. This fat becomes solid at about the temperature of the 
body. It has a somewhat higher melting point than butter, which becomes 
liquid at a temperature of from 34 to 36 degrees C. When solidified the fat 
may be heated to 41 or 42 degrees before it again becomes liquid. Palm oil 
has rather a pleasant taste and is regarded as an edible fat of high quality, and 
is largely used as such by Europeans and in Africa and other countries where 
the fat is produced. The fat also has a very pleasant odor which is said to 
resemble somewhat that of violets. This pleasant odor is quite persistent 
and remains even in the fatty acids after they have been converted into 



THE ACORN. 413 

soap. Palm oil is manufactured in the crudest possible way by the natives, 
and immense quantities are lost for this reason. By reason of this crude 
method, which leaves the oil in contact with the putrescible matter, palm oil 
often comes into the market in a rancid state or at least with a high content 
of free fatty acid. Appreciable quantities of water are also found in the crude 
article. 

Inasmuch as the natural color of palm oil is somewhat too deep for the taste 
of the ordinary consumer, ranging from yellow to a dirty red color, it is often 
bleached in the refining process before being sent into commerce. Ordinary 
exposure to the air tends to bleach this oil, and ozone is also employed as a 
bleaching agent. The bichromate process of bleaching palm oil is very com- 
monly practiced. By this method the oil is freed from its principal impurities 
and treated with from one to three percent of potassium bichromate and with 
hydrochloric acid which decomposes the " chrome" liquor, and in the chemical 
process which attends this reaction decided bleaching effects are produced. 
The bleaching agents are withdrawn and the oil thoroughly washed with 
water until all traces of chromate and mineral acid are removed. 

Adulterations. — On account of its great cheapness and the fact that the ad- 
mixture of other oils of lower melting point would detract from its value, palm 
oil has not been subjected to any extensive adulteration. The most common 
adulterations are the impurities which are left in the oil in the slovenly method 
of manufacture employed by the natives of Africa. 

Constituents. — As would be expected from the name, one of the chief con- 
stituents of palm oil is palmitin. If palm oil is saponified and the solid sepa- 
rated from the liquid fatty acid, the former is found to consist almost ex- 
clusively of palmitic acid. The specific gravity of palm oil is taken at a high 
temperature, as much as 50 degrees C. or above. The specific gravity at this 
temperature is about .893. Palm oil absorbs a little over one half its weight of 
iodin. The average iodin number may beTegarded as varying from 53 to 55. 
Aside from the limited use of palm oil for human food it is used chiefly in the 
manufacture of soap and of candles. It is also used extensively in the tin 
plate industry to spread over the hot iron surface to preserve it from oxidation 
until it is dipped into the bath of melted tin. 

NUTS. 

The Acorn. — Many varieties of acorns are used for human food. All of 
the nuts of the oak family are edible, but some of the larger and more com- 
mon varieties contain such .a quantity of tannin as to be rather bitter to the 
taste. The wild acorns were formerly utilized very extensively for the fat- 
tening of swine, producing an article of pork of high palatable value but with 



414 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

the production of a fat of a low melting point, unsuitable for the manufacture 
of lard for summer use. The term applied to the natural nuts eaten by 
swine for this purpose is "mast," and formerly "mast-fed" pork was an 
extensive article of commerce. The disappearance of the oak and beech 
forests, however, have practically eliminated this variety of pork from the 
markets, as far as commercial considerations are concerned. 
Composition 0} the Acorn. — Edible portion, 64.4; refuse, 35.6. 

Edible Portion. 

Water, 4.1 percent 

Protein, 8.1 " 

Fat, 37.4 " 

Starch and sugar, 48.0 " 

Ash, 2.4 " 

Calories per pound, 2,718 

The acorn resembles the chestnut in its composition, containing more 
carbohydrates than fat. It is therefore not an oily seed, but one of a fari- 
naceous character. 

Almonds. — There are two species of almond trees, the Amygdalus com- 
munis, which is the common or sweet almond, and the Amygdalus amara, or 
the bitter almond which flourishes very extensively in the south of Europe. 
California has a climate which, with artificial irrigation, is favorable to the 
growth of the almond, and practically all that are produced in the United 
States for commercial purposes grow in that state. It is also cultivated ex- 
tensively in France, Italy, and Spain, large supplies of the almonds of com- 
merce coming from those localities. The almond is delicious when eaten 
in the green state, that is when the seed is fully formed but before the hull 
is hardened. It is rarely eaten in this condition in the United States, but 
forms a common article of diet upon the table of the Europeans in the early 
summer. 

Composition of the Almond. — 



Sample. 


Water. 


Protein. 

Percent. 
21.0 

23-5 


Fat. 


Total 
Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ash. 


Edible portion : 

California almonds, 

European almonds, 


Percent. 
4.8 
6.0 


Percent. 
54-9 
S3-0 


Percent . 

17-3 
14.4 


Percent. 
2.0 

3-1 



In the United States the almond is eaten very extensively, often roasted 
and salted. In this condition it is found as a relish in many menus. The 
roasting improves to a certain extent the flavor of the nut, but the quantity 
of salt which is used is not always beneficial, inasmuch as an abundance 
of salt is eaten with other portions of the food. One of the most valued 
varieties is the Jordan almond, illustrated in the accompanying colored plate. 




Jordan Almond 

From Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, iqos 



BRAZIL-NUT. 



415 



Beechnuts. — The beech tree is a very common forest tree throughout 
the northern part of the United States. Formerly immense areas in southern 
Ohio and Indiana were covered almost exclusively by the beech tree {Fagus 
americana Sweet). The beechnut is triangular in shape, resembling buck- 
wheat, and formerly was produced in immense quantities over the region men- 
tioned above. In the early days it was the principal food for swine. The 
hogs which are fattened by eating the beechnut and acorn produce a species of 
pork of a peculiar and very highly prized flavor. The celebrated hams and 
bacons of the southern Appalachian ranges were produced from the variety 
of hogs known as razor-backs fattened on mast, namely, the chestnut, beech- 
nut, and acorn. The beechnut is also one of the principal winter foods of the 
squirrel and other animals which store their food for winter use. In the 
cutting of the forests in the winter often large stores of beechnuts are found 
stored away by squirrels and birds. The beechnut is not very abundant 
upon the markets of the country, but is eaten very largely by those who live 
in the vicinity of beech woods. 

Composition 0} the Beechnut. — 



Sample. 



Fagus Americana: 

Edible portion,.. 

As purchased,.. . 
Fagus sylvestris: 

Edible portion,. 

As purchased,... 



Refuse. 


Water. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Total 
Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ash. 


Calo- 
ries. 


Percent. 


Percent. 


Percent. 


Percent . 


Percent . 


Percent. 


Per pound 


40.8 


4.0 

2-3 


21.9 
13.0 


57-4 
34-0 


12.2 
7.8 


3-5 
2.1 


3.263 
1,932 


33-0 


9.1 
6.1 


21.7 
14-5 


42.4 
28.4 


22.9 
iS-4 


3-9 
2.6 






Brazil-nut (BerthoIIetia excelsa Humb. and Bonpl.). — Large quantities of 
this nut are imported into the United States from Brazil and form an im- 
portant article of food in many localities. This nut is not grown in the 
United States. It is also known as cream nut. The nut is triangular 
in shape and has a dark brown rough exterior. The kernel is highly flavored 
and quite oily. The tree is so sensitive to the cold that it will not grow suc- 
cessfully even in southern Florida, although many attempts have been made 
to introduce it into that locality. 

Composition 0} the Brazil-nut. — Edible portion, 50.4; refu.se, 49.6. 



Sample. 


Refuse. 


Water. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Total 
Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ash. 


Calo- 
ries. 


Edible portion, 

As purchased, 


Percent. 
49.6 


Percent. 

5-3 
2.7 


Percent. 

17.0 
8.6 


Percent. 
66.8 
33-6 


Percent. 

7.0 
3-5 


Percent. 

3-9 
2.0 


Per pound 

3-329 
1,678 





4l6 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

Butternut {Juglans cinerea L.). — The butternut is another variety of walnut 
which grows very extensively in the United States and has the same geograph- 
ical distribution as the walnut, except that the butternut is not so common 
west of the Mississippi, The tree does not grow so large as the walnut 
tree, nor is its wood so highly valued for commercial purposes. While the 
walnut is a round nut the butternut is very much elongated, forming an oval- 
shaped nut which is very highly valued as a food. The coloring matter of 
the butternut is practically the same as that of the walnut. The butternut 
also has a fleshy outer covering not so thick as that of the walnut and which 
is removed in the same way in the harvesting. 

Composition of the Dry Butternut. — 

Ediblk Portion. As Purchased. 

Refuse, 86.4 percent 

Water, 4.4 percent .6 " 

Protein, 27.9 " 3.8 " 

Fat, 61.2 " 8.3 " 

Sugar, etc., 3.5 " .5 " 

The Chestnut {Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Bork). — The chestnut tree 
grows in great abundance wild in the United States, especially in the eastern 
portion on the foothills of the AUeghanies. In some localities it originally 
formed vast forests. The value of the timber and the fact that the chestnut 
grows only on good soil were prominent factors in the destruction of many 
of the original forests, especially those covering the arable lands. The trees 
still grow in great abundance, especially in the hilly regions. 

In France the chestnut is very widely grown, and the nut is used very ex- 
tensively as food by the poor classes. The nuts are often dried and ground 
to a flour which is mixed with water and baked in thin sheets, forming a very 
heavy but a sweet and nutritious cake. The chestnut is used in the prep- 
aration of many dishes, prized even by those who are well-to-do. In Italy 
the chestnut is also widely cultivated, and the nut is ground to form a kind 
of porridge known as polenta which is very extensively used as food. In 
the Apennines a cake made of chestnut flour and baked on hot stones is used 
under the name of necci. In Corea the chestnut is said to be a very common 
article of food, taking the place of the potato. It is eaten raw, boiled, roasted, 
or cooked with meats. The chestnut differs from the oily nuts in the smaller 
proportion of fat and the very much larger proportion of sugar and starch,— 
in fact, starch is almost missing in some of the oily nuts, the carbohydrates 
in the very oily ones being chiefly sugars. In the chestnut the starch is more 
abundant than the sugar, and for this reason the chestnut meal is more like 
the meal of the ordinary cereal than that of the oily seeds. The chestnut, 
also, as it is gathered fresh contains a great deal more water than the ordinary 
fresh seeds, the quantity ranging from 40 to 50 percent. 



CHINESE NUT. 417 

The average composition of the fresh chestnut, edible portion, is repre- 
sented by the following data: 

Water, 42.7 percent 

Protein, 6.5 " 

Fat, 6.3 " 

Starch and sugar, 43.1 " 

Ash, 1.4 " 

The dried chestnuts, that is, those which have been kept .for several months 
or which have been artificially dried, have a composition represented by the 
following data: 

Water, 4.8 percent 

Protein, 11. 6 " 

Fat, 15.3 " 

Sugar and starch, 65.7 " 

Ash, 2.6 " 

The average weight of the hull of the chestnut is 15.9 percent of the total 
weight of the fresh nut, and 23.4 percent of the average weight of the dried 
nut. The above data are confirmatory of the statement that the meal of 
the chestnut in its composition is very much like that of the oily cereals, for 
instance, of Indian corn meal or oats. It, however, contains more oil and 
less protein than the cereals referred to. It is readily seen from the above 
data that chestnut meal may not properly take the place of Indian corn as 
human food. The nut of the chestnut tree ripens at the time of frost. 

The wild chestnut shrub, which springs up in great numbers where the 
the original trees are cut away, is now extensively grafted with cultivated 
varieties. In Pennsylvania there are large orchards of the Paragon chestnut 
which have been grown in this manner. 

Chinese Nut {NepheJium litchi Cambess.). — This is not a true nut in the 
ordinary sense of the word, but is usually classed with nuts. It is a product 
of China and is imported into the United States for consumption by our 
Chinese population. In the fresh state in China it has the reputation of 
being one of the best fruit products of that country, having flesh of a white 
color and a flavor resembling that of high-grade grapes; 41.6 percent of 
the fresh nut is refuse matter. The edible portion has the following com- 
position : 

Water, 17.9 percent 

Protein, 2.9 " 

Fat, 2 

Starch and sugar, 77.5 " 

Ash, 15 

Calories per pound, i,45,3 

The above data show that in chemical composition the Chinese nut does 
not belong to the class of nuts at all. It is a fruit, its nutritive material being 
almost exclusively carbohydrates, while in the true nut the principal nutritive 
substances are the protein and the oil. 
28 



4i8 



VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 



Coconut. — The coconuts which are consumed in the United States are 
mostly imported. It is estimated that three hundred thousand coconut trees 
(Cocos nucifera L.) have been planted in Florida, and from 15 to 20 percent 
of them are already bearing. The common name of the tree is the coco- 
nut palm. The fruit of the coconut palm is used for many purposes. The 
immature nuts are often used medicinally, forming the base of a valuable 
ointment for external use. The jelly which lines the shell of the more mature 
nut furnishes a food product of great delicacy and high nutritive value. The 
milk of the coconut is itself highly esteemed as a delicious article of food. 
Grated coconut is one of the basic constituents of that familiar condimental 
substance, East Indian curry. Coconut oil is a very highly edible fat from 
which a butter is made. The fat itself is valuable for cooking purposes. 
The composition of the coconut is shown in the following table: 



Sample. 


Refuse. 


Water. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Total 
Carbohy- 
drates. 


Ash. 


Calo- 
ries. 




Percent. 


Percent. 

14.I 

7.2 


Percent. 

5-7 
2.9 


Percent 
50.6 

25-9 


Percent. 
27.9 
14-3 


Percent. 

1-7 
•9 


Per pound 
2,986 


As purchased, . 


1-529 









The solid edible portion of the nut is highly oleaginous and contains also 
a considerable quantity of starch and sugar. Coconut milk is much poorer 
in nutrients than cow's milk, containing over 92 percent of water, only .4 
percent of protein, and only 1.5 percent of fat. The carbohydrates con- 
tained therein are chiefly sugars. 

Filberts. — The term filbert, according to some etymologists, is a corrup- 
tioti of the term "full beard," and is so named on account of its having many 
long beards or husks. The filbert is the fruit of the cultivated hazel tree 
(Corylus avellana L.). The nut contains a kernel having a pleasant taste 
and is quite oily and nutritious. It is not cultivated to any extent in this 
country where we rely principally upon the wild hazel for the hazelnut. 
The composition of the filbert is shown in the following table (edible por- 
tion, 47.9; refuse, 52.1): 

Edible Portion. 

Water, 3-7 percent 

Protein, i5-6 " 

Fat, 65.3 

Sugai and starch, 13.0 

Ash,. 2.4 " 

Calories per pound, 3!432 

The filbert is produced in large quantities on the Asiatic shore of the Black 
Sea. The region of Trebizond is the most prolific source of the filbert. 



HICKORY-NUT. 



419 



Hazelnut. — The hazelnut grows on a .small tree or large shrub {Corylus 
avel/ana L.). The species which grows wild in the United States is known 
chiefly as Corylus america Walt. It is from this shrub that the common 
wild hazelnut is obtained. There is also another variety grown in this 
country, Corylus rosirata Alt. The hazelnut is a small, nutritious, and pala- 
table nut of a brown color and grows over a very large area of the United 
States, especially in the northern part of the country. It is quite an articb 
of commerce, but is not cultivated to any great extent. The cultivated 
variety, as has already been stated, is known as the filljert. 

Composition of the Hazelnut. — • 



Sample. 


Refuse. Water. 


Protein. 

Percent. 
15.6 

7-5 


Fat. 


Total 
Carbohy- 
drates. 


.■\SH. 


Calo- 
ries. 




Percent. Percent. 
3.7 
52.1 1.8 


Percent. 
65-3 

3^-3 


Percent. 

13.0 

6.2 


Percent. 
2.4 
I.I 


Per pound 
3.432 
1,644 







Hickory-nut. — The hickory-nut is another one of the nuts which sometimes 
is classed with walnuts and grov.s v, ild very extensively throughout the United 
States, having the same geological distribution as the walnut and butternut 
The hickory tree {Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton) produces a nut of highest 
quality. On account of the character of the bark, which becomes detached 
and often widely separated from the trunk, it is kncnvn as the shagbark (^r 
shellbark hickory. 

Another variety of the hickory tree is known as the pignut {Carya glabra). 
The nut produced by this tree is much less prized than the other hickories, 
often containing a sufficient amount of tannin to make it distinctly bitter. 
The wood of the hickory is very tough and elastic and is used extensively in 
the manufacture of spokes for wagon-wheels, axe-handles, etc. The young 
hickory trees grow- thickly together and have a slender reed-like grow'th. They 
are used extensively in the manufacture of hoop-poles. The hickorv has suf- 
fered from the advance of the farmer much in the same manner as the walnut 
and other valuable timber trees. The original trees have almost entirelv dis- 
ap])eared. The young trees grow vigorously and in a few vears will bear 
nuts, and in some localities the care and cultivation of the wild tree has been 
established for the purpose of securing new forests of nut-bearing trees. The 
hickory-nut is even more highly prized for eating purposes than the butter- 
nut and walnut, but should be eaten under the same conditions, namely, 
before the passing of the first winter after their production. Thev, also, on 
account of their high content of oil, tend to become rancid when they are 
kept through the warm summer. 



420 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

Composition of the Dry Hickory-nut. — Edible portion, 37.8; refuse, 62.2. 

Edible Portion. 

Water, 3.7 percent 

Protein, 15.4 " 

Fat, 67.4 

Sugar and starch, 1 1 .4 " 

Ash, 2.1 

Calories per pound, 3i49S 

Peanuts. — The peanut is a widely cultivated plant. It grows extensively 
in the United States, and is especially regarded as a crop of high value in North 
Carolina and Virginia. Very large quantities of peanuts are grown in Sene- 
gal, in Algiers, in Egypt, and in many other localities. 

The pod containing the seed grows underground, but is not a part of the 
roots, properly so-called. The pods are attached by slender stems to the 
stalk of the peanut, and may be regarded as the seed of the plant, entering 
and maturing underground. When embedded they are soon covered by a 
soft envelop and then by several similar coverings. For edible purposes they 
are much improved by roasting, which gives them an aromatic, nutty flavor 
that is much Hked. A striking illustration of the plant showing the seed- 
pods is given in the accompanying colored plate. 

Peanuts are used as food both directly, as after roasting, and indirectly, 
by the expression of oil, which after proper refining is considered of high value 
for edible purposes. The oil of the peanut forms an edible oil of rich flavor, 
pleasant taste, and high nutritive value. It is used, either alone or mixed 
with other edible oils, notably with olive oil for table purposes and for the 
making of salad dressing. The residue of the pressings for peanut oil are 
highly valued as a cattle food, containing large quantities of nitrogenous 
nutriment, and also as a manure. 

The composition of the peanut varies greatly in different localities. Its 
chief value as a food material lies in the high percentage of protein it contains 
and the high percentage of fat. The composition of the typical hulled peanut 
is shown in the following table: 

Water, 9.2 percent 

Protein, 25.8 

Fat or oil, 38.6 

Sugar, starch, etc., 24.4 

Insoluble cellulose, 2.5 

Ash, 0.9 

Only the blossoms which form on the lower part of the stalk produce the 
fruit, since it is necessary that the long stem should strike the earth and the 
young fruit penetrate to the depth of from five to six centimeters in order 
that the fruit may mature. This method of penetrating the earth is shown 
very well in the colored figure already mentioned. 




Peanut (Arichide) 

From Huilleries Calve-Delft (Holland) 



PEANUT BUTTER AND PEANOLIA. 421 

The original home of the peanut is not definitely known, but is supposed 
to be Africa. It was first described as occurring on the American continent 
by Ferdinand de Oviedo in San Domingo in the beginning of the i6th century. 
It is now very generally distributed in all the tropical countries in South Amer- 
ica, Asia, and Africa, and, as before described, grows very well as far north 
as the northern boundary of North Carolina and in southern Virginia. Pea- 
nuts are used for food in all the countries mentioned with previous prepara- 
tion and roasting. 

The above data show that the peanut is a food product extremely rich in 
oil and protein and comparatively poor in carbohydrates. For dietetic pur- 
poses it should be eaten with some highly amylaceous substance, such as 
potato, rice, or tapioca. 

The value of the peanut for food purposes is not fully realized in this country, 
where it is eaten rather as a relish and as an incident to the circus or the picnic. 
In such cases they are usually consumed -in too large quantities and by un- 
balancing the ration may produce unpleasant effects from which an unrea- 
sonable prejudice against this valuable food product might arise. 

Peanut Butter. — An oily preparation of the peanut or the oil therefrom 
deprived of a part of its stearin is known as peanut butter and is used as a sub- 
stitute for ordinary butter. What has been said of the nutritive value of the 
oil of the peanut applies also to this product. The butter has the peculiar 
flavor of the peanut which is not agreeable to some persons, but is con- 
sidered extremely palatable by others. The nuts are also powdered more or 
less finely and mixed with other food products. Peanuts which grow in 
northern Senegambia are regarded very highly for the manufacture of fine 
salad oil, and peanut oil is used extensively for this purpose. 

Peanut Butter and Peanolia. — Peanut butter and peanolia are used to 
a considerable extent in the United States as food products. They are pre- 
pared from peanuts, properly roasted, ground to a fine powder, and mixed 
with an appropriate quantity of salt. The analyses of the samples of these 
products, mad^ in the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, show 
the following composition: 

Peanut Butter. Peanolia. 

Water, 2.10 1.98 

Protein, 28.66 29. 94 

Fat, 46.41 46.68 

Sugar and dextrin, 6.13 5.63 

Starch, 6.15 5.58 

Insoluble cellulose, 2.30 2.10 

Common salt, 3.23 4.95 

Ash, 80 1 .08 

The above analyses show that the preparations are produced from the roasted 
peanuts, which process reduces the water to about 2 percent. The ground, 



422 



VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 



roasted product is mixed with about 4 percent of common salt. The other 
constituents are the same as those of the peanuts from which the preparations 
were made. Of the carbohydrate content of the peanut about 4 percent has 
been found to be pentosans. 




Fig. 58.— Pecan Trer, 30 Years Old, Morgan City, l^A.—iCom-tesy of.H. E. I'an Demon.) 



Where Peanuts are Grown. — Virginia is one of the most important of 
the peanut-growing states, especially in its southeastern portion. The Com- 
missioner of Agriculture of Virginia reports that about one hundred thou- 
sand acres are planted annually in the state of Virginia, producing over four 



WHERE PEANUTS ARE GROWN. 



423. 



million bushels. Fifty bushels per acre is considered a good average yield. 
An important point in the production of good peanuts is the selection of the 







o 

X 





s: fc 



seeds. The most vigorous and well formed kernels are to be selected for 
planting, and especially those that are produced by plants of identical size and 



424 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

shape. By a selection of this kind the quality of the crop can be greatly im- 
proved. 

One of the peculiarities of the peanut is that it is an underground legume. 
All other leguminous fruits mature above the soil. Its underground habitat 
is the reason for its botanical name, hypogaea. If the stem carrying the small, 
yellov^^, butterfly-shaped flowers, which springs from the axis of the branch 
above the ground, fails to reach the soil no fruit is formed. If the soil is 
properly cultivated the germ may penetrate of its own accord. However, 
art assists nature in this matter and covers up the pods so as to give them 
a better start. The peanut, like some other leguminous crops, develops 
nodules upon its roots in which the bacteria that assimilate free nitrogen 
live in symbiotic union with the plant itself. 

Pecan-nut (Hicoria pecan (Marsh.) Britton; Carya olivajormis Nuttall). 
— The pecan is a nut which is very much valued and grows, with a most excel- 
lent flavor, in the southern part of the United States. Texas, Louisiana, 
southern Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, and Florida are the principal regions 
where the pecan grows, although it is cultivated in some instances much 
further north. 

The pecan belongs to the same family as the hickory-nut and is indigenous 
to the United States. It grows wild over a large area, extending. from south- 
ern Illinois and Indiana to the Gulf. It often forms very large trees in the 
forests. There are several species of Hicoria. The fruit of the pecan 
is especially valued on account of the thinness of the shell and its extremely 
pleasant and aromatic flavor. As is the case with most nuts, it is composed 
chiefly of oil and proteids, the sugar and starch being in minute proportions. 
The composition of the fruit of the pecan, when divested of its hard shelly 
is given in the following table: 

Edible Portion. 

Water, 2.9 percent 

Protein, 10.3 " 

Fat, 70.8 

Sugar, starch, etc., 14.3 " 

Ash, 1.7 " 

Calories per pound, 3.445 

For marketing purposes the pecans are now largely grown in orchards, as 
the supply of the wild nut is uncertain, and its texture and flavor are not so 
fine as the cultivated variety. The cultivated variety may also be grafted 
upon the wild tree with good effects. The tree begins to bear at four or five 
years of age. A comparative appearance of the wild and cultivated nut is 
shown in the accompanying Fig. 59. The tree, when full grown, is handsome 
in appearance, and is valued as a shade tree as well as a fruit producer. The 
fuU grown tree is shown in the accompanying Figs. 58 and 60. 

Pine-nuts. — In many portions of the western part of our country pine- 



PECAN-NUT. 



425 



nuts are consumed largely as food. There are several species of pines yield- 
ing edible nuts on the Pacific coast of the United States and as far east as 
Colorado and New Mexico. These nuts are articles of considerable impor- 




FiG. 60. — Full Grown Pkcan Trek. — {By pri ntission Fii-ld Culuinhniii Museunt.) 



tance in the commerce of many of the cities of California. The principal 
specimens of pine which yield edible nuts are Pinus monophylla Torr. 
and Frem., Pinus edulis Engelm., Pinus sabiniana Dougl. The refuse is 
usually less than 50 percent of the total weight of the nut. 



426 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

Composition oj the Edible Portion. — 



Botanical N 'kwE. 



Water. Protein. 



Pinus monophylla , | 3.8 

" edulis, I 3.4 

" sabiniana, 5.1 



6-5 
14.6 
28.1 



Fat. 



60.7 
61.9 
53-7 



Starch 

AND 

Sugar. 



26.2 

17-3 
8.4 



Ash. 



2.8 
2.8 
4-7 



Calories 

Per 

Pound. 



3.327 
3.364 
3.161 



Pistachio. — The nut of the pistachio {Pistachia vera) is used very largely 
for flavoring purposes and also for food. The tree, is a native of Syria but 
has been cultivated in southern Europe for many years. The nut produced 
, in America, though larger than the native Syrian fruit, is not considered 
so palatal)le. The j^istachio is also grown to some extent in the southern part 
of the United States as well as in Californii. The kernel of the fruit is green 
in color and has a flavor which in some respects is reminiscent of almonds. It 
is used chiefly in this countrv in the manufacture of confectionery and ice 
creams. 

Composition oj the Pistachio. — 

Edible Portion. 

Water, 4.2 percent 

Protein, 22.3 " 

Fat, 54- " 

Starch and sugar, 16.3 " 

Ash, 3-2 

Calories per pound, 3>235 

Walnuts (Jitglans nigra L.). — The American walnut grows wnld over a very 
large portion of the country, especially the middle section west of Maryland to 
the Mississippi river. The walnut tree is especially abundant along the 
Ohio river, where it forms in the early summer a dense foliage. The trees 
often attain a very great size, reaching a diameter as great as five feet. 

The walnut trees grow only on rich soil, hence, unless the country was very 
hilly and unsuitable for cultivation, the walnut forests were the first to fall before 
the axe of the pioneer. Later the demand for walnut lumber completed the 
devastation of the walnut forests, until now very often in the regions w^iere fifty 
years ago the trees were extremely abundant a large walnut tree is rarely 
seen. The walnut lumber has peculiar lasting powers, and on account of its 
natural color and grain is of the highest value for building and ornamental 
purposes. The early farmers in the Ohio valley made their rail fences out of 
walnut trees. The wild nut grows in a dense kernel and is covered with 
a thick pericarp which is green even at the time when the fruit is ripe. After a 
frost when the fruit naturally falls from the trees the outer covering disintegrates. 
When the nuts are gathered by boys the outer covering is usually beaten off 
with clubs. It contains a coloring matter of a brown or brownish-black tint 



GENERAL DISCUSSION. 42? 

which the early housewives used for dying homespun cloth. The bark of the 
tree also contains to a greater or less extent the same coloring matter. The 
kernel of the walnut, that is, the edible portion, is extremely rich in oil and pro- 
tein and has a very pleasant taste. Like other nuts the walnut is best during its 
first winter, since on longer keeping the oil tends to become rancid and the fruit 
impalatable. 

White Walnut (Jiti^lans rcgia L.). — The white walnut, commonly known as 
the English walnut, is grown very extensively in France. All the departments 
of south central and southeastern France grow these walnuts as a valued cro}). 
The best walnut orchards are at an altitude of from 600 to 900 feet. Only the 
outer or exposed limbs produce perfect nuts. In planting the most important 
precaution is to give the trees plenty of room, 15 yards is about the usual dis- 
tance at which they are planted. The trees are cultivated and fertilized with 
manure and commercial fertilizers every two or three years. A bearing or- 
chard of these white walnuts in France is worth from four to five hundred dol- 
lars per acre and may yield a revenue of from seventy-five to one hundred 
dollars a year per acre. The nuts ripen from the middle of September to the 
end of October. These nuts are used largely in America as a food, for 
which purpose the kernels are carefully extracted in halves, commonly known 
as "walnut halves." In France an excellent table oil is expressed from the 
dry nut which for many culinary purposes is valued as highly as olive oil. 
After extraction the oil cake is used for stock food. The white walnut is 
supposed to have been originally introduced from Persia, though it is com- 
monly known as the English walnut. In the United States the butternut tree 
is commonly known as the white walnut. 

The composition of the kernel of the dry walnut is shown by the following 
data: 

Edil)le portion: 

Water, 2.5 percent 

Protein, 16.6 " 

Fat, 63.4 " 

Total carbohydrates, 16.1 " 

Ash, .' 1.4 " 

As purchased: 

Refuse, 58.1 perccn 

Water, i.o " 

Protein, 7.0 " 

Fat, 26.6 " 

Total carbohydrates, 6.7 " 

Ash, : 6 " 

General Discussion. — A brief description has been given above of the 
principal edible nuts used in the United States, accompanied by a statement 
of their chemical composition. The character of these food products is well 



428 VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS, AND NUTS. 

shown by the analytical data. Nuts as a whole are extremely oily substances 
and contain next in importance as a food material, protein. Alone they 
constitute an unbalanced ration in which the fat and protein are abundantly 
present at the expense of the starch and sugar. For this reason an exclu- 
sively nut diet cannot be recommended, as it surely tends to unbalance the 
ratio and to disturb the digestion in the great majority of cases. There 
are doubtless individuals of a peculiar temperament who can thrive on a 
diet of nuts alone, but such a case is exceptional. On the other hand the 
value of the nut as a food is undeniable, both as a nutrient and as a 
pleasant condimental addition to the food. The large percentage of oil in 
nuts also in many cases is beneficial from the well-known effect of oil in pro- 
moting the digestive activities, mechanical and otherwise. Nuts should be 
eaten in as fresh a state as possible, especially those of a highly oily character. 
Rancidity not only spoils the taste but interferes largely with their dietetic 
value. On account of the high amount of oil, nuts are preeminently a heat- 
forming food and thus can be eaten very freely by those engaged in vigorous 
bodily exercise and during cold weather. They also form a food especially 
useful during periods of extreme exertion, since by their combustion they 
furnish abundant stores of heat and energy. 

Many fads relating to foods flourish in various localities. Among them 
the school of dietetics, which advises a diet solely of nuts, is worthy of men- 
tion. It is true that life can be sustained for an indefinite time on a diet of 
nuts alone. If the nuts are sought in the forests and fields the good effects of 
the exercise and outdoor life are to be taken into consideration. There is no 
reason to believe, however, that the general condition of mankind, from a 
dietetic point of view, would be improved by an exclusive nut diet. The im- 
possibility of supplying man with such a food product is also a factor in the 
discussion of the problem that should not be forgotten. 

Food Fads Self-limiting. — Nearly all the vagaries relating to diet are 
self-corrective. Should the human family suddenly adopt as a sole diet any of 
the articles so enthusiastically advertised by their partisans, these articles 
would at once so increase in price as to be beyond the reach of all but the very 
rich. The choice for the masses would then be between the adherence to a 
theory or starvation. That many people would willingly starve for devotion to 
a principle is well attested by historical facts. But few would be found to 
keep the faith. We are, therefore, content to receive the good which most of 
these theories contain and feel no concern as to ultimate injury to the race. 

It is a matter of surprise, however, to find that the greater the vagary in a food 
fad the more extensive the vogue. The appeal of the extreme to the human 
imagination seems at times quite irresistible. Sooner or later, however, the 
errant knight returns to reason and common sense. 



PART VIII. 

FUNGI AS FOODS. 



Mushrooms. — Certain fungi growing wild or in cultivated soils and 
having an expanded top on a hooded stem are known as mushrooms. The 
common form of mushroom (Agariais campestris L.) grows wild over a large 
portion of the United States. It is especially abundant in the autumn, grow- 
ing sometimes during the night after a warm rain, over large areas. When 
properly cooked it forms a delicious food and condimental substance, highly 
prized by connoisseurs and others. Belonging to the family of mushrooms, 
however, are many poisonous varieties which, when eaten inadvertently, 
often cause serious illness and sometimes death. For this reason mushrooms 
sold in the open market should be carefully inspected by experts authorized 
to see that the poisonous varieties are excluded. It not only requires a good 
botanist, but also one skilled in the practical differentiation of the different 
varieties by physical appearance rather than by botanical analysis, to properly 
separate the poisonous from the edible varieties. 

Historical. — Mushrooms have been, since historical times, extensively 
used as human food. In a book written five centuries before the Christian 
era, Athenee, in his " Banquet of Learned Men, " speaks of the poisoning of 
a mother and her three children by mushrooms. Hippocrates speaks of a 
girl who had been poisoned by mushrooms and who was cured by the admin- 
istration of hot honey and by a hot bath. Theophrastes and Nicandre also 
speak of mushrooms and the poisoning that occurs therefrom. Both Cicero 
and Horace make reference to mushrooms. Horace advises that Epicureans 
should confine themselves to the mushrooms that grow upon meadows and 
refuse to eat all others on account of the danger from poisoning. Ovid also 
makes frequent allusions to mushrooms and speaks of the influence of warm 
rains upon their growth. Tacitus refers to the use of mushrooms for food, 
and Suetonius, in his "History of the Twelve Caesars," relates that the Em- 
peror Claudius was poisoned by a dish of mushrooms. It is, therefore, evi- 
dent that from the earliest times mushrooms were extensively used and 
the poisonous properties of some of the varieties understood. 

Production of Mushrooms. — As has already been mentioned, mushrooms 
grow wild over a large area of the United States. They are also cultivated 
very extensively, though not to so great an extent as in European countries. 

429 



430 FUNC.I AS FOODS. 

The best place for growing cultivated mushrooms is one where the light is 
excluded or diffused and where the temperature remains reasonably constant. 
Cellars, caves, and the artificial caverns made by quarrying are peculiarly 
Avell suited for the growth of different varieties of fungi, such as mush- 
rooms. They grow well in some localities in uncovered beds. 

The art of growing mushrooms is not easily acquired. The directions 
given by the best authorities may be rigidly followed and failure ensue. The 
skill of the grower appears to be largely intuitive and those who have it succeed 
where theoretical knowledge fails. For cultural purposes, the Agaririis 
campestris is most universally employed. 

Soil. — The soil best suited for the growth of mushrooms is one rich in 
decayed or decaying vegetable matter. Mushrooms are often found grow- 
ing in localities where a log or stump has decayed or where the inorganic 
matter from the manure of cattle or horses has been distributed on the soil. 
Artificial beds for the growth of mushrooms are made up largely of organic 
manurial substances. 

5/'ore5.— Mushrooms are grown from spores. The mushroom produces 
a brown powdery material which consists of almost innumerable simple cells 
of ovate shape to which the term "spore" has been applied. A spore is 
not in the strict sense of the word a seed, but simply a cell which by prolifera- 
tion produces the new fungus. Generally growers do not use these spores 
directly in seeding mushroom beds. Each complete spore, however, is, under 
favorable conditions, capable of proliferation or germination, producing a 
thread-like growth of a spider-web character which penetrates through the 
soil, prepared and manured, upon which a spore is germinated. This spider- 
web-like growth, in the common language of mushroom growers, is called 
the spawn, more properly called the mycelium of the mvishroom. When 
the conditions are favorable, there are formed on the threads of this mycelium 
small nodules, which are the earlier stages of the complete fungus itself. From 
the beginning of this growth until the final production of the mushroom 
two or three days or even a week may elapse. The earlier periods of this 
growth take place under ordinary circumstances, but the advent of a 
warm rain or other extremely favorable conditions causes the budding mush- 
room to grow at an enormously rapid rate. The mushroom may not be 
said to have a root, stem, and leaf, as is the case with an ordinary green plant, 
but is practically a single organism, assuming different shapes which are 
represented by the different varieties and species of growth. 

Differing Varieties of Edible Mushrooms. — -There is a very large variety 
of edible mushrooms differing in form, size, and shape from the Agaricits 
campestris. In the Washington markets there are four principal kinds of 
mushrooms which are found growing wild in the vicinity of the city. These 
comprise the common mushroom — Agariciis campestris, the horse mushroom — 



MUSHROOMS. 431 

Agariciis arvensis, shaggy mushroom — Coprimis comatus, and the puff-ball — 
Lycoperdon cyathijorme. 

Conditions oj Growth. — The proper shed or cellars ha\'ing been selected, 
the first thing to do is to see that the temperature is favorable to the growth 
of the fungi. Temperatures above 60 degrees F., or below 50 degrees F., 
are not favorable to the growth. The best temperatures are from 55 to 58 
degrees. The locality where the mushrooms are grown should be kept very 
damp and the air highly saturated with aqueous vapor. The reason that 
mushrooms grow best in covered places, such as has been mentioned, is due 
to the particularly favorable influence which the even temperature mentioned 
and a practically saturated atmosphere have upon the growth. In locali- 
ties where the changes of temperature are not very severe, mushrooms grow 
very well in the open. In the county of Kent, England, I have seen^ mush- 
rooms growing in the open garden, where, by covering with straw, they flourish 
during the greater part of the year. In the winter time the temperature 
may be kept quite even by the covering so as to yield abundant crops, while in 
the months of August, September, and October they grow in the open in great 
abundance. 

Preparation 0} Seed Bed. — The seed bed for the growth of mushrooms, 
as has already been indicated, is made principally of well decayed stable 
or stall manure. The manure must be well fermented, thoroughly disin- 
tegrated, and exposed for a sufficient length of time to be in the proper condi- 
tion. Mushrooms cannot be obtained until the heat attending the fermen- 
tation of manure has entirely disappeared. 

Directions for growing mushrooms cannot be given here, but those who 
are intending to enter the business should consult the best authorities and 
begin in a small way until they acquire the necessary skill before commercial 
success can be obtained. 

Growth oj Mushrooms in France. — Perhaps in no country has the culti- 
vation of mushrooms been carried to such a large extent as in France. The 
principal industries in France are confined to those regions where artificial 
caves have been made by the quarrying of building stone. The most exten- 
sive caverns of this kind exist in the neighborhood of Paris, near Bordeaux, 
and particularly in the neighborhood of Sceaux. These artificial caverns 
are often miles in extent and furnish exceptionally favorable opportunities 
for the growth of mushrooms. The soils or manures on which they arc grown 
must be carried into these caverns, and experience has shown that mushrooms 
do not continue to grow well in the same locality, and, therefore, the place 
of growth must be moved from time to time to different parts of the caves. 
The galleries of these abandoned quarries are sometimes of enormous extent 
and are from 30 to 150 feet below the surface. They are generally from se\en 
to ten feet high, but occasionally so low that a man cannot stand upright in 



432 



FUNGI AS FOODS. 



them. In general they are wide enough for two rows of beds with a foot 
way 1 8 inches wide in the center. Where a mushroom bed has been well 
prepared and properly seeded, it produces about six pounds of mushrooms 
per square yard. These mushrooms bring, in the market, an average of 
about 15 cents per pound. It is stated by some authorities that the reason 
the bed ceases to bear after a time and has to be abandoned or moved is 
not because of the exhaustion of the food but is due to the ravages of an insect 
or fly which produces a worm which is fatal to the growth of the fungus. 
At any rate, it is customary to abandon the beds after they have been bearing 
for six or eight months and to return to them after a year, when they are found 
to again be productive. 

It is not expected that the general consumer will become an expert in 
the selection of mushrooms. Where mushrooms are exposed in a public 
market, it is the duty of the municipal officers in charge of food products to see 
to it that poisonous varieties are not exposed for sale. It will be of value, 
however, to the reader to have some idea of the general shape of some of 
the more common edible and poisonous varieties. It is generally supposed 
that mushrooms, toadstools, and puff-balls are entirely distinct species and 
that only the mushroom, so-called, is edible. On the contrary, there are 
many edible toadstools and many edible puff-balls, and all three classes of 
fungi belong to the same general family. 

Food Value 0} Mushrooms. — The nutritive value of mushrooms is not 
exceptionally high, although there is a popular opinion to the contrary. Fre- 
quently it has been stated that the mushroom in the vegetable world holds 
a similar position to beefsteak among meats, being particularly rich in diges- 
tible protein. The analytical data which have been collected from numerous 
sources on the composition of mushrooms do not bear out this popular impres- 
sion, but, on the contrary, show that the mushroom is a food product consisting 
very largely of water and of only very small quantities of protein, fat, and 
carbohydrates. 

The composition of some of the common mushrooms is shown in the fol- 
lowing table (Farmers' Bulletin, No. 79, Mushrooms as Food): 







w 
o 


Q . 


Q 
. 






i 






Kind. 






K 

H 




CO •- 


2 !Z 

S " 

li 



2 


w 

H 


B! 
Ph 


< 
fa 


< 
>< 

K 


» 
< 




< 


Common mushroom, 


91.30 


0.60 


0.36 


0.24 


3-75 


0.20 


3-5° 


0.80 


0.50 


Shaggy Coprinus, 


92.19 


•45 


•IS 


•30 


2.81 


.26 


1.40 


•57 


.98 


Inkv Coprinus, 


92.31 


•36 






2.25 


.24 




.72 


1.29 


Common Morel, 


«9-S4 


.49 


•37 


.12 


3.06 


•50 


1.60 


.91 


1.08 







MUSHROOMS. 433 

These data may be compared with the composition of the beefsteak: 

Water, 62.5 percent 

Protein, 19.5 " 

Fat, 170 

Ash, 10 " 

From the above data it is seen that the mushroom does not contain anything 
like the amount of protein found in beefsteak. It has one-third more water, 
one-sixth as much protein, and only one-fortieth as much fat. Beefsteak 
contains no carbohydrates except less than one percent of glycogen, while the 
amount of carbohydrates in the mushroom varies from 1.5 to 3.5 percent. 
It is evident that the mushroom is principally valuable as a condimental 
substance and not as a food product. 

Distinction between Poisonous and Edible Varieties. — It has already been 
stated that only the expert is able to distinguish between the poisonous var- 
ieties of mushrooms and those that are edible. Even the skilled botanist, 
as well as the expert, may sometimes make mistakes in this matter. Hence 
the only perfectly sure method of protection against the poisonous varieties 
is the eating of only those which are cultivated and which are known to be 
free of poisonous properties. On the other hand, the wild variety, by many 
connoisseurs, is much more highly valued as being more delicate and pala- 
table. It should also be remembered that the cultivation of mushrooms 
is not very widely extended, and if the supply of the wild variety should be 
excluded there would be a great diminution of the quantity which is accessible 
to the consumer. This would be an especial hardship in the United States, 
where mushrooms grow wild over such wide areas and so abundantly and 
where the cultivation of them as compared with some other countries is 
somewhat restricted. There are some general characteristics by means of 
which a distinction can be made between the edible and the poisonous varieties. 

The following rules are given for the rejection of the probably poisonous 
mushroom by George Francis Atkinson (" Studies of American Fungi — 1900") : 
"In the selection of mushrooms to eat, great caution should be employed by 
those who are not reasonably familiar with the means of determination of 
the species, or those who have not an intimate acquaintance with certain 
forms. Rarely should the beginner be encouraged to eat them upon his 
own determination. It is best at first to consult someone who knows or to 
send first specimens away for determination, though in many cases a careful 
comparison of the plant with the figures and descriptions given in this book 
will enable a novice to recognize it. In taking up a species for the first time 
it would be well to experiment cautiously." 

No Certain Rule to Distinguish the Poisonous from the pAiihle. — "There is 
no test like the 'silver-spoon test' which will enable one to tell the poisonous 
mushroom from the edible ones. Nor is the presence of the so-called ' death- 
29 



434 FUNGI AS FOODS. 

cup' a sure sign that the fungus is poisonous, for Amanita cccsarea has 
this cup. For the beginner, however, there are certain general rules, which, 
if carefully followed, will enable him to avoid the poisonous ones, while at 
the same time necessarily excluding many edible ones. 

" ist. — Reject all fungi which have begun to decay, or which are infested 
with larvae. 

" 2d. — Reject all fungi when in the button stage, since the characters are 
not yet shown which enable one to distinguish the genera and species. But- 
tons in pasture lands which are at the surface of the ground, and not deep- 
seated in the soil, would very likely not belong to any of the very poisonous 
kinds. 

" 3d. — Reject all fungi which have a cup or sac-like envelope at the base 
cf the stem, or which have a scaly or closely fitting layer at the base of the 
stem and rather loose warts on the pileus, especially if the gills are white. 
Amanita ccpsarea, however, has a sac-like envelope at the base of the stem and 
yellow gills as well as a yellow cap, and is ediljle. Amanita ruhescens has 
remnants of a scaly envelope on the base of the stem and loose warts on the 
cap, and the flesh, where wounded, becomes reddish. It is edible. 

"4th.^ — Reject all fungi with a milky juice unless the juice is reddish. Sev- 
eral species with copious white milk, sweet or mild to the taste, are edible. 

" 5th. — Reject very brittle fungi with gills nearly all of equal length where 
the flesh of the cap is thin, especially those with bright caps. 

" 6th. — Reject all Boleti in which the flesh changes color where bruised or 
cut, or those in which the tubes have reddish mouths, also those the taste 
of which is bitter. Strohilomyces strobilacens (Scop.) Berk, changes color 
when cut, and is edible. 

" 7th. — Reject fungi which have a cobwebby veil or ring when young, and 
those with slimy caps and clay-colored spores. 

"In addition, proceed cautiously in all cases, and make it a point to become 
very familiar with a few species first, and gradually extend the range of species 
rather than attempt the first season to eat a large number of different kinds. 
All puff-balls are edible so long as they are white inside, though some are 
better than others. All coral-hke or club fungi are edible." 

Popular Distinction between Toadstools and Mushrooms. — There is a general 
opinion that the toadstool is poisonous and the mushroom is not. There 
is, however, no scientific distinction between the two kinds of fungi, popularly 
known as toadstools and mushrooms. The distinction is purely an arbitrary 
one. The small toadstools are often as delicious and as harmless as the small 
mushroom. The small mushroom, on the other hand, may be as deadly 
and as undesirable as the worst specimen of toadstool. There is danger 
especially to two classes of people in the discrimination between the poisonous 
and edible varieties of mushrooms and toadstools. The first class is com- 



MUSHROOMS. 435 

posed of those who are practically unaware of the existence of poisonous 
varieties and the second class of persons are those who claim to be able to 
tell an edible mushroom from a certain number of tests or claims which they 
regard as infallible. Both of these classes of persons are apt to be deceived 
or injured by dangerous varieties. 

The following popular signs of distinguishing between the poisonous and 
non-poisonous varieties are pronounced worthless by Gibson ("Our Edible 
Toadstools and Mushrooms and How to Distinguish Them"): 

"Favorable Signs. 

1. Pleasant taste and odor. 

2. Peeling of the skin of the cap from rim to center. 

3. Pink gills, turning brown in older specimens. 

4. The stem easily pulled out of the cap and inserted in it like a parasol 
handle. 

5. Solid stems. 

6. Must be gathered in the morning. 

7. 'Any fungus having a pleasant taste and odor, being found similarly 
agreeable after being plainly broiled without the least seasoning is perfectly 
safe.' 

" Unfavorable Signs. 

S. Boiling with a 'silver spoon,' the staining of the silver indicating 
danger. 

9. Change of color in the fraction of the fresh mushroom. 

10. Slimy or sticky on the top. 

11. Having the stems at their sides. 

12. Growing in clusters. 

13. Found in dark, damp places. 

14. Growing on wood, decayed logs, or stumps. 

15. Growing on or near manure. 

16. Having bright colors. 

17. Containing milky juice. 

18. Having the gill plates of even length. 

19. Melting into black fluid. 

20. Biting the tongue or having a bitter or nauseating taste. 

21. Changing color by immersion in salt-water, or upon being dusted with 
salt. 

"These present but a selection of the more prevalent notions. Taken in 
toto, they v/ould prove entirely safe, as they would practically exclude every 
species of toadstool or mushroom that grows. But as a rule the village oracle 
bases his infaUibitity upon two or three of the above 'rules,' and inasmuch 



436 FUNGI AS FOODS. 

as the entire list absolutely omits the only one test by which danger is to be 
avoided, it is a seven days' wonder that the grewsome toadstool epitaph is 
not more frequent." 

The following tests are regarded as favorable by Gibson: 

1. Avoid every mushroom having a cup or suggestion of such, at base; 
the distinctly fatal poisons are thus excluded. 

2. Exclude those having an unpleasant odor, a peppery, bitter, or other 
unpalatable flavor, or tough consistency. 

3. Exclude those infested with worms or in advanced age or decay. 

4. In testing others which will pass the above probation let the specimen 
be kept by itself, not in contact with or enclosed in the same basket with 
other species. 

Begin by a mere nibble, the size of a pea, and gentle mastication, being 
careful to swallow no saliva, and finally expelling all from the mouth. If 
no noticeable results follow, the next trial, with the interval of a day, with 
the same quantity may permit of a swallow of a Uttle of the juice, the frag- 
ments of the fungus expelled as before. No unpleasantness following for 
twenty-four hours, the third trial may permit of a similar entire fragment 
being swallowed, all of these experiments to be made on an empty stomach. 
If this introduction of the actual substance of the fungus into the stomach 
is succeeded by no disturbance in twenty-four hours, a larger piece, the size 
of a hazelnut, may be attempted, and thus the amount gradually increased 
day by day until the demonstration of edibihty, or at least harmlessness, 
is complete and the species thus admitted into the "safe" list. By following 
this method with the utmost caution the experimenter can at best suffer but 
a slight temporary indisposition as the result of his hardihood, in the event 
of a noxious species having been encountered, and will at least thus have 
the satisfaction of discovery of an enemy if not a friend. 

It may be said that any mushroom, omitting the Amanita, which is pleasant 
to the taste and otherwise agreeable as to odor and texture when raw, is 
probably harmless and may safely be thus ventured on with a view of 
establishing its edibility. A prominent author on our edible mushrooms 
(Mcllvaine) applies this rule to all the Agarics with confidence. " This rule 
may be established," he says: "All Agarics — excepting the Amanitae — mild 
to the taste when raw, if they commend themselves in other ways , are edible. " 
This claim is borne out in his experience, with the result that he now numbers 
over one hundred species among his habitual edible list out of the three hun- 
dred which he has actually found by personal test to be edible or harmless. 
"So numerous are toadstools," he continues, "and so well does a study oi 
them define their habits and habitats, that the writer never fails upon any 
day from April to December to find ample supply of healthy, nutritious, delicate 
toadstools for himself and family." 



MUSHROOMS. 



437 



" In gathering mushrooms one should be supplied with a sharp knife. The 
mushrooms should be carefully cut oflf an inch or so below the cap, or at 
least sufficiently far above the ground to escape all signs of dirt on the stems. 
They should then be laid gills upward in their receptacle, and it is well to 
have a special basket, arranged with one or two removable bottoms or hori- 
zontal partitions, which are kept in place by upright props within, thus reliev- 
ing the lower layers of mushrooms from the weight of those above them. 
Such a basket is almo'-.t indispensible. 

"Before preparing mushrooms for the table, the specimens should be care- 
fully scrutinized for a class of fungus specialists which we have not taken 
into account, and which have probably anticipated us. The mushroom is 
proverbial for its rapid development, but nature has not allowed it thus to 
escape the usual penalties of lush vegetation, as witness this swarming, squirm- 
ing host, minute grubs, which occasionally honey-comb or hollow its entire 
substance ere it has reached its prime; indeed, in many cases, even before 
it has fully expanded or even protruded above ground. 

"Like the carrion flies, the bees, and wasps, which in early times were believed 
to be of spontaneous origin — flies being generated from putrefaction, bees 
from dead bulls, and the martial wasps from defunct "war-horses" — these 
fungus swarms, which so speedily reduce a fair specimen of a mushroom to 
a melting loathsome mass, were also supposed to be the natural progeny 
of the 'poisonous toadstool.' But science has solved the riddle of their 
mysterious omnipresence among the fungi, each particular swarm of grubs 
being the witness of a former visit of a maternal parent insect, which has 
sought the budding fungus in its haunts often before it has fully revealed 
itself to human gaze, and implanted within its substance her hundred or more 
eggs. To the uneducated eye these lan^ ae all appear similar, but the special- 
ist in entomology readily distinguishes between them as the young of this 
or that species of fly, gnat, or beetle. 

"As an illustration of the assiduity with which the history of these tiny 
scavenger insects has been followed by science, I may mention that in the 
gnat group alone over seven hundred species have been discovered and scien- 
tifically described, many of them requiring a powerful magiiifier to reveal 
their identities. 

" Specimens of infected or decaying mushrooms preserved within a tightly 
closed box — and, we would suggest, duly quarantined — will at length reveal 
the imago forms of the voracious larvse; generally a swarm of tiny gnats or 
flies, with an occasioral sprinkling of small glossy black beetles, or perhaps 
a beautiful indigo-blue insect half an inch in length of most nen'ous habit, 
and possessed of a long and very active tail. This insect is an example of 
the curious group of rove-beetles — staphylinus — a family of insect scavengers, 
many of whose species depend upon the fungi for subsistence. 



438 FUNGI AS FOODS. 

"Even the large woody growth known as 'punk' or 'touchwood,' so 
frequently seen upon decaying trunks, is not spared. A huge specimen 
in my keeping was literally reduced to dust by a single species of beetle. 

"Considering the prevalence of these fungus hosts, it is well in all mushrooms 
to take the precaution of making a vertical section through stem and cap, 
excluding such specimens as are conspicuously monopolized, and not being 
too critical of the rest, for the over-fastidious gourmet will often thus have 
little to show for his morning walk. I have gathered a hundred specimens 
of fungi in one stroll, perhaps not a quarter of which, upon careful scrutiny, 
though fair of exterior would be fit for the table. The fungus hunter par 
excellence has usually been there before us and left his mark — a mere fine 
brown streak or tunnel, perhaps winding through the pulp or stem, where 
his minute fungoid identity is even yet secreted. But we bigger fungus 
eaters gradually learn to accept him — if not too outrageously promiscuous — as 
a natural part and parcel of our Hachis aux Champignons, or our simple 
mushrooms on toast, even as we wink at the similar lively accessories which 
sophisticate our delectable raisins, prunes, and figs, to say nothing oi prime 
old Rochefort " (pag^s 33-34). 

E. Faupin, the author of the work " Les Champignons Comestibles et Vene- 
neux, " gives some valuable hints respecting the confusion of edible and poison- 
ous varieties of mushrooms. He also says that the so-called rules which are often 
formulated to distinguish the good mushrooms from the bad are nearly all 
misleading. If they are applicable in a few particular cases they surely are 
not in all, and consequently ought to be judged as of no value. For instance, 
it has been commonly said that the mushrooms whose flesh changes color 
when exposed are poisonous. This is true for certain kinds but it is not 
true for others. There are, indeed, some mushrooms whose flesh undergoes 
an alteration when it is exposed and which are, nevertheless, of most excellent 
quality. As an example of this, the variety known as "delicious lactaire" 
may be cited. On the contrary there are other kinds whose flesh remains 
white on exposure and whicii are decidedly poisonous, as for example Ama- 
nita citrina Pers. It is also said that a mushroom whose stem is surrounded 
by a ring is to be considered edible. This indication is altogether deceptive. 
Some of the most poisonous varieties have well formed rings. It is also 
misleading to credit the action of the juice of the mushroom in coloring a 
piece of silver. It is said that those mushrooms whose juice blackens silver 
are poisonous, while those which do not are harmless. This perhaps is the 
most dangerous of afl the rules to go by, as some of the most poisonous varieties 
would be admitted on this test. It is also misleading to suppose, as is com- 
monly the case, that mushrooms which are attacked by insects, larvas, etc., can 
be eaten without danger. Likewise misleading is the general opinion that 
mushrooms whose odor is agreeable or which have no appreciable odor are 



MUSHROOMS. 439 

not poisonous. It is high time to eradicate these misleading notions and to 
let the people know with certainty that aside from the botanical character 
there does not exist any particular sign nor any particular means of affirming 
that a given mushroom is edible or poisonous. Science alone, therefore, 
has the sole power of teaching to distinguish the poisonous from the non- 
poisonous varieties. For many years attempts have been made to popularize 
the science which will give to the people the desired information, but in spite 
of these efforts the number of cases of poisoning does not seem to diminish, 
and why? The response is evident. It is because the efforts which have 
been made by mycologists have not yet been appreciated by the mass of 
people, and because it has not yet been possible to point out to the public 
at large the poisonous species. The number of species of poisonous mush- 
rooms which are capable of causing death is happily not very great. The 
Amanitas and the Volvarias are almost exclusively the poisonous species. 
Let it be understood, therefore, by the people that there do exist mushrooms 
which are capable of killing. If the people desire to place themselves out 
of danger let them begin by learning these varieties. Their number is very 
limited, as there are only five or six species at most. When they are well 
known it will be very easy to distinguish them and to recognize all others 
as edible. Following is a list of the most poisonous mushrooms known, and 
all that are likely at any time to produce death: 

Amanita phalloides Fr. 

" citrina Pers. 

" verna Bull. 

" virosa Fr. 
Volvaria gloiocephala, var. speciosa (Fr.). 
Amanita muscaria (L.) Pers. 

" pantherina DC. 
Lactarius torminosus (Schaeff.) Fr. 

" rufus Fr. 

" zonarius (Bull.) Fr. 

" pyrogalus (Bull.) Fr. 
Russula emetica Fr. 
*' queletii Fr. 

" fnctens (Pers.) Fr. 
Boletus felleus Bull. 
'' satanus Lenz. 

" erythropus Cke. 
" luridus Schaeff. 
Entoloma lividum Bull. 

The Most Poisonous of Mushrooms. — The most poisonous of the common 



HO 



FUNGI AS FOODS. 



mushrooms is known as Amanita verna Bull. So active is its poison that 
this variety has become known as the "deadly Amanita." 

Types of Edible Mushrooms. — While it is quite impossible for a manual 
of this kind to give any directions by which a person, not an expert, may make 
certain distinctions between the edible and poisonous varieties of mushrooms,, 
it is thought advisable to give a fair technical illustration of the two classes. 
The common mushroom, Agaricus campestris, is shown in the accompanying 
Fig. 6i, — three-fourths its natural size. The second specimen from the left 
is young and is in a state of development known as a button. The figure 
at the extreme left is a larger specimen, showing the slightly checked surface 
that sometimes occurs in this species. In fresh specimens the surface is 
white, but various shades of light brown, either checked or plain, are often 
found. The specimen at the right shows the gills on the lower surface of 




Fig. 6i.— Common Mvshroom, Ag-arrcits camfiestr/s. Ediblf. (Three-fourths Natural Size.) 
— (/•'. / '. Coviltt', Citciilar No. Jj, Division of Botany, Departtnenl of Agriculture.) 

the cap. These gills in a newly expanded mushroom, fresh from the field, 
are of a beautiful delicate pale pink color, often with a touch of salmon. In 
the older samples the gills turn to a light brown and finally almost to a black 
color. This discoloration is chiefly due to the development of almost innu- 
merable spores from which new plants are propagated. If the stem of a 
common mushroom be broken off and the cap be laid gills downward on a 
piece of white paper, the spores will drop off and after a few hours will appear 
as a brown dust. The usual diameter of full-grown specimens of this variety 
of mushroom is from i^ to 3 inches, though many smaller and many larger 
samples are found. 

This variety of mushroom is the principal one which is exposed upon the 
markets of Washington. They are especially abundant in the autumn after 
copious rains often succeeding the usual period of drought in that region. 



MUSHROOMS, 



441 



October is the banner month for this variety of mushroom. The myceHum 
from which the autumn mushroom grows is formed in the spring, and after 
the dry period of summer the Httle spheroid granules formed upon the myce- 
lium are capable of absorbing the moisture of the warm autumnal rains 
and rapidly expand to the full-grown mushroom. After all the conditions 
of growth are fulfilled it usually requires only a single night for a button to 
push through the surface of the soil and expand its cap. Mushrooms are 
particularly obnoxious to the ravages of insects, and it is always advisable 
that they should be gathered and eaten immediately after they are formed. 
The insect larvae attack the mature mushroom, travelling up through the 
stem into the cap, and decomposition rapidly follows. 

It is easy to determine whether a mushroom is wormy or not by breaking 




Fig. 62 — Edible Mushrooms (Agariciis arvensis Scha.aH.). — (F. V. Coville) 



off the stem close to the cap and observing if there are little holes through 
which the larvK have passed upward into the cap. The common mushroom 
occurs most frequently on lawns and in pastures, and especially in neglected 
fields where weeds have been succeeded by a scant covering of grass. Some- 
times during the spring and summer, as well as in the autumn, the common 
mushroom is found upon the market. These mushrooms usually are pro- 
duced upon the garbage dumping grounds near the city. The garbage 
and refuse from the city furnish the manurial conditions required for a speedy 
development of the mushroom from the mycelium.. 

The Horse Mushroom (Agaricus arvensis Schaeff.). — This variety of 
mushroom is also one which grows in great abundance in the neighborhood 
of Washington and in other latitudes affording a similar environment. This 
specimen is in many respects like Agaricus campeslris but the surface of 



442 FUNGI AS FOODS. 

the cap is somewhat darker colored. The ring on the stem is also wider 
and thicker than in campestris. This variety also grows larger than cam- 
pestris, and the diameter of the cap is commonly from three to six inches. 




Fig. 63.— Shaggy Mushroom, Coprinus comatus. Edible. (Thrke-fourths Natural Size.) — 
{Coville, Circular is, Division of Botany.) 

• 

The figure is only about one-half the natural size. The horse mushroom 
is frequently confounded with the common mushroom, and there is practically 
no difference in their edible qualities. It grows preferably in gardens rather 
than fields, and especially in gardens which have been heavily fertilized. It 



MUSHROOMS. 44- 

also frequently appears in old beds composed of decayed stable manure 
which has been used for forcing beds for early vegetables. 

Shaggy Mushroom {Coprinus coniatus Fr.). — The accompanying Fig. 63 
represents a group of three specimens of this variety of mushroom growing 
from a single base. The largest one is already showing signs of liquefac- 
tion and decomposition and a part of the cap has partially disappeared. One 
of the peculiarities of this species is that beginning with the edge of the cap the 
whole mushroom dissolves sometimes within a day, when it is full grown, into 
an inky-black fluid. A portion of this inky fluid has run pardy down the white 
stem of the largest mushroom. The cap of this mushroom, except wdien 
it begins to liquefy, resembles somewhat the form of a partially closed umbrella. 
In the early stages of growth the cap, gills, and stem are white, except the apex 
of the cap, which is generally dark-colored. The surface of the cap is covered 
with delicate lacerated scales, the characteristic from which the name comatus 
or shaggy is derived. The juice from the fresh sample is colorless as water. 
When it first begins to turn it is wine-colored, and until the juice is very deeply 
discolored the sample is still edible. After the juice has turned completely 
black it is considered too old to be eaten. This species of mushroom grows 
best in shady places, in a soil well supplied with humus. The season in which 
this variety of mushroom is most abundant is late in the autumn or earlv 
in the winter, when the nights are cold but the ground is not yet frozen. The 
liquefaction and decay of this mushroom come on so quickly that it is not usu- 
ally infested with larvcT which do not have time to develop before the mu.sh- 
room is reduced to a .shapeless mass. The most common organism found is 
the myriapod, a thousand-legged worm, which often finds its way between 
the gills and stem. This cavity should always be examined for worms of this 
kind when the mushroom is being prepared for the table. 

Fairy Ring Mushroom (Marasmius oreades Fr.). — This variety is one which 
is interesting both on account of its edible properties and by reason of the 
circular areas which it encloses and around which it often forms a symmetrical 
border; The tendency of this variety to grow in the annular form designated 
is beautifully shown in the accompanying figure, from a photograph taken 
on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture. The ring in question 
is seven feet in diameter and the photograph was taken early in Novem- 
ber. The stem in this variety has no ring, — the gills are few and widely 
separated and the cap as it becomes fully expanded has a peculiar knob- 
like projection in the center. This gives a characteristic appearance to 
this variety of mushroom. The cap and stem are colored a pinkish-buff', 
and the gills have a lighter shade of the same color varying in early growth 
toward a cream tint. The spores are white and can be observed by plac- 
ing the cap, as already indicated, on a dark-colored paper, preferably 



444 



FUNGI AS FOODS. 



black glazed paper. The fairy ring mushroom is one of the commonest 
species which grows on the lawns in Washington and vicinity. As many 
as twenty of these fairy rings have been found on the grounds of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture in one season. In the earlier days, when superstition 
was more rife than at present, these rings were supposed to mark the places 
of the dances of the fairies. Another fanciful cause assigned for the pro- 
duction of the rings was that it was due to the effect of lightning striking the 
ground and burning the grass in a circle, and thus favoring the growth of 
fungi. Investigations, however, show that the fairy ring is due to a peculiar 
way in which the mycelium is produced, /. e., beginning at a central point 




Fig. 64. — FAIK^ Ri.m 



jR.Mi.u i'.\ .^/ai usiiiiiis iinui/'i. an F.iiir.LK Mushroom. 
IS, Viviiiuu of liuLaiiy.) 



-(Coville. Circular 



and growing uniformly in all directions a few inches a year. After a while 
the central portion, being older, begins to die, and thus a small circular band 
is formed which each year increases in size, growing regularly on the outside 
and dying as regularly on the inside. The fairy rings are not always com- 
plete circles, — they are sometimes broken and often are crescent-shaped. 
This variety of mushroom is quite permanent, does not tend to decay as 
rapidly as some, and resists better than most varieties the attacks of insects. 
They, however, are very small as compared with the other common varieties. 
Puff -halls. — A typical mushroom known as the puff-ball is the variety 



MUSHROOMS. 



445 



known as Lycoperdon cyathijorme Bosc. The puff-ball is so plain in its form 
that a description of its appearance is difficult. Usually the outside is colored 
brown and the covering is mor^ or less irregularly checked, the white color 
of the interior showing between the darker, elevated areas. When still 
quite young the flesh is solid, of a milk-white color, and apparently quite 
dry. After two or three days it becomes soft, has a yellow tint, and acquires 
a watery and later an amber-colored juice as it continues its development 
through to the later stages. If the mushroom remains ungathered, the inte- 
rior dries up into a fine brown powder which is projected into the air wiien 
pressed by the finger. It is often blown away by the wind. WTien the fun- 
dus reaches this stage of decay it is very commonly known as "the devil's 




'FiG.(>s-—'PvPF-^Ai,i^, Lycoperdon cyathiforme. Top \\vw. Edible. (Three-fourths Natural 
Size.) — {Coville, Cucular ij. Division of Botany.) 



snuff-box." Finally the spores and other dust-like bodies are blown away, 
and there is left only a dry and leathery framework. In the latter stages 
the puff-ball is not regarded as edible, not because of its being poisonous, 
but on account of its dry and leathery consistency. In the neighborhood 
of Washington puff-balls are found commonly in the autumn on lawns and 
in gardens, and especially on vacant lots where the soil has remained un- 
cultivated and been closely grazed by cattle. The puff-ball also tends to 
grow in a fairy ring form, and in the circular area in which it grows the grass 
is likely to be darker in color, showing the existence of a richer soil. It is 
only while the interior of the puff-ball is still solid and white, with something 
like the texture of cheese, that it has its highest edible value. 

Cepe {Boletus ediilis Bull.). — This variety of mushroom is one of the most 



446 



FUNGI AS FOODS. 



highly esteemed, especially in the south of France. It is large and has a 
very large, half-pear shaped stem. The flesh of this variety of mushroom is 
white and quite firm in the young mushroom, but becomes softer with age and 
assumes on the outside a wine tint. It grows, especially in the late summer 
and through the autumn, wild in the forest. In the extreme south of France 
it sometimes appears as early as April. ("Nouvel Atlas de Champignon,' 
Paul Dumee, page 45.) ("The Mushroom Book," by Nina L. Marshall, page 
109.) The cap is usually from four to six inches in diameter and is a gray, 
brownish-red or tawny-brown in color. 







I^H 




^^^^^^^^%^ y^'.^-^j^BKSSi' 


m^K^Kt 




^^^m ' ' ^J| 


I^^eF^^^^^^^^^^H 




H^B' "^^^y 


inSBc ''>-' " ^^1 




^^^^^^^^K. »j|BP| 


^^^^H 


^^^^^^^^^S^^^^^^^^ 


^^^^K ' '^ra 


UPP^UmB 


^^K_„ .1 




^^^^9 


^^^^^^^^HQ^i^g-a?*^ 


^MHjj 


|m^^p^H 




^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B^ ' '"'}:>' '-'^^S '*^k 


^^^ 


W^^mmt^'^'mtiM 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Hte3^^^HKl3 


I^h^^mQ^^r^H 


Hj^nKdivS' ^'^'^^I^^^H 




[■aZwipj^Krt^^f^^B 


hh^^^B^^^^^h^IkiSs^b^' '^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I 




IhIhI^h 






^I^H 



Fig. 66.— Amanita (Full-grown). 



(One-half Natural SiZK.) — {Covi//t\ Circular /j, Division 
of Botany.) 



The Fly Amanita {Amanita muscaria (L.) Fr.). — This is one of the very pois- 
onous varieties of mushrooms. In the illustration the fully matured mush- 
room is shown at one-half its natural size. This is the most common poisonous 
mushroom which grows in the District of Columbia and other nearby localities. 
The points especially to be noticed are the bulbous enlargement at the base 
of the stem, breaking into thick scales above, the very broad drooping ring 
near the top of the stem, and the corky particles loosely attached to the smooth, 
glossy upper surface of the cap. The stem, gills, and the spores are white, 
the corky particles commonly of a bu£f color, but sometimes varying almost 



MUSHROOMS. 447 

to white. The glossy upper surface of the cap, beneath the corky particles, 
varies from a brilliant red to orange-yellow, buff, and even white. Commonly 
in the vicinity of ^^'ashington the coloration is orange in the center, shading 
to yellow toward the margin. Brilliant red ones are rarely seen in this locality, 
but white ones are not infrequent, especially late in the season. This was the 
\'ariety of mushroom that lately caused the death of a well known man in Wash- 
ington. This poisonous variety is one of the largest, handsomest, and most 




Fig. 67.— Fly Amanita Buttons (Amaniia muscaria). (Natural Size.) 

dangerous of mushrooms, and is one whose poisonous character has been most 
fully studied. It is abundant in the vicinity of Washington in the fall, growing 
chiefly in the pine woods and, especially, in the localities which have been 
frequented by hogs. The chief active poisonous principle of the fly amanita 
is an alkaloid called muscarine, but other poisonous substances whose exact 
nature has not yet been discovered also occur in the plant. 

When this variety of mushroom is reduced to a paste and exposed where 



448 FUNGI AS FOODS. 

it can be eaten by flies the latter are readily poisoned, and hence the common 
name of "^jy amanifa." 

Symptoms of Mushroom Poisoning. — The symptoms of poisoning 
from the fly amanita, as deduced from a number of cases, are varied. In 
some instances they begin only after several hours, but usually in from one- 
half to one or two hours. Vomiting and diarrhea almost always occur, with 
a pronounced flow of saliva, suppression of the urine, and various cerebral 
phenomena, beginning with giddiness, loss of confidence in one's ability to 
make ordinary movements, and derangement of vision. This is succeeded 
by stupor, cold sweats, and a very marked weakening of the heart's action. 
In case of rapid recovery the stupor is short and usually marked with mild 
dehrium. In fatal cases the stupor continues from one to two or three days, 
and death at last ensues from the gradual weakening and final stoppage of 
the heart's action. 

Treatment for Poisoning. — The treatment for poisoning by Amanita 
muscaria consists primaril}' in removing the unabsorbed portion of the ^ma- 
nita from the alimentary canal and in counteracting the effect of the muscarine 
on the heart. The action of this organ should be fortified at once by the 
subcutaneous injection, by a physician, of atropin, in doses of from one 
one-hundredth to one-fiftieth of a grain. The strongest emetics, such as 
tartarized antimony or apomorphin, should be used, though in case of pro- 
found stupor even these may not produce the desired action. Freshly ignited 
charcoal or two grains of a one percent alkaline solution of permanganate 
of potash may then be administered in order, in the case of the former sub- 
stance, to absorb the poison, or in case of the latter, to decompose it. This 
should be followed by oils and oleaginous purgatives, and the intestines 
should be cleaned and washed out with an enema of warm water and 
turpentine. 

Experiments on animals poisoned by the fly amanita and with pure mus- 
carine show very clearly that when the heart has nearly ceased to beat it may 
be stimulated to strong action almost instantly by the use of atropin. Its 
use as thus demonstrated has been the means of saving numerous lives. We 
have in this alkaloid an almost perfect physiological antidote for muscarine, 
and therefore in such cases of poisoning its use should be pushed as heroically 
as the symptoms of the case will warrant. 

The presence of phallin in Amanita muscaria is possible and its effects 
should be looked for in the red color of the blood serum discharged from 
the intestines. (Circular 13, Div. of Botany.) 

Removal of the Poisonous Principle. — In some parts of Europe the 
fly amanita is soaked in vinegar and then is eaten with impunity. Some 
of the colored people in Washington and vicinity are acquainted with this 
method of treatment, and the practice of soaking these fungi in vinegar and 



ADULTERATION OF MUSHROOMS. 449 

then eating them is not unknown, though the majority of colored women 
in the markets who deal in mushrooms look upon this species with unrestrained 
horror. 

The poisonous variety is denatured as follows : The stem is well scraped, 
and the gills are removed from the cap and the upper surface peeled off. The 
mushrooms prepared in this way are boiled in salt and water and afterward 
steeped in vinegar. They are finally washed in clear water and then cooked 
in the ordinary manner and eaten without any injurious results. It is not 
recommended, however, that a mushroom which contains so much deadly 
poison should be eaten at all, even after a preparation of this kind. Any 
carelessness in the preparation or any failure to carry out the process com- 
pletely would result fatally. 

Canned Mushrooms. — The canning of mushrooms is an industry of large 
magnitude, especially in France. The young, unexpanded mushrooms in the 
form of buttons are those which are usually subjected to the canning process. 
Mushrooms are brought to the factory where they are cleaned and scraped, 
the stem cut to a proper length, thoroughly washed in several washings of 
clean water, and taken to a sulfuring furnace where they are exposed to the 
fumes of burning sulfur for some time. The purpose of this treatment is 
to bleach the mushroom and make it as w^hite as possible. Decayed or 
deformed buttons are not included in the cans of highest quality. The pre- 
pared mushrooms are then placed in cans, usually of tin, and preserved l)y 
subjecting them to a temperature at or above boiling water until thoroughly 
sterilized. Mushrooms are also preserved by desiccation. 

Canned Pieces and Stems of Mushrooms. — The imperfect portions, 
the ])ieces which are cut away, and other fragments of the mushroom, result- 
ing from the preparation of the product described above, are treated practically 
in the same manner for sterilizing purposes and are sold to the trade under 
various names, the most common of which is Champignons d' Hotel. They 
also frequentlv appear under the name of Champignon Choix and other 
deceptive labels. 

Adulteration of Mushrooms. — There is no adulteration practiced of 
fresh mushrooms unless the occasional occurrence of poisonous varieties 
may be so considered. It is evident, however, that the introduction of poison- 
ous varieties is the result of carelessness or mistake and not for any purpose. 
Nevertheless a most exacting supervision over the preparation of fresh mush- 
rooms for the market should be required, and any failure to exercise this care 
mav be considered as resulting in adulteration or depreciation of the character 
of the product. 

In canned mushrooms the presence of sulfurous acid may be regarded as 
an adulterant, and such a substance, l:)elieved to be inimical to health, is not 
necessary in the preparation of the goods. It is quite certain that the public 
3° 



450 FUNGI AS FOODS. 

taste would soon adapt itself to an amber- or brown-colored product in canned 
mushrooms and value it as highly as the buttons which are white. Since the sole 
purpose of the use of sulfur is for bleaching, the end secured scarcely justifies the 
means. It is claimed, naturally, that the use of sulfur is also a safeguard in secur- 
ing a better keeping of the product, but such an adjunct for keeping purposes 
is only necessary when the sterilization is not complete. It is to be hoped 
that the day will soon come when mushrooms bleached with sulfurous acid 
shall no longer be found upon our market. The use of other preservatives 
than sulfurous acid has at times been practiced, but it is not believed that there 
are many cans of mushrooms offered upon the market which contain any 
chemical preservatives whatever save the sulfurous acid above noted. Since 
the canned mushrooms are valued principally as a condiment, the inclusion of 
imperfect or partially decayed or malformed buttons is extremely imusual. 
The buttons are separated into sizes of approximately the same magnitude, 
so that a can of the product is uniform in size as well as in quality. The 
customer may be reasonably certain that he is getting a good, young, care- 
fully selected product, free from disease and from accidental impurities which 
might render the product unwholesome or unpalatable. 

Truffles. — The truffle has been known almost, if not quite as long as the 
mushroom as an edible delicacy. The use of truffles in France became 
very common during the 14th century, but on account of their high price they 
remained for a long time a luxury and not a general article of commerce. 
It is only within the 19th century, after 1840, that their consumption became 
general. The truffle belongs to the botanical family Tuberaceae. 

The propagation of truffles is similar to that of mushrooms, by spores, 
which first give rise to a mycelium which furnishes the nutrients for the tubercle 
during a certain time of its early growth. In the cultivation of the truffle, 
artificially, it is necessary to make use of a forest or some similar artificial 
covering. If trees are planted especially for the development of truffles it 
requires six or eight years growth before the cultivation of truffles is successful. 
The truffle grow.'/ very readily in the shade of nut-bearing trees and in the 
shade of the oal.. The mycelium does not produce truffles until after several 
years of vegetation. When it once begins to fructify and produce the truffle 
it continues to bear for many years. The truffle, like the mushroom, grows 
rapidly. At f/rst, as has already been stated, it is nourished by the mycelium, 
but when th's is exhausted it is nourished by absorbing the nutritious elements 
from the scil and air. When it reaches maturity and its spores are well 
formed the truffle acquires its maximum of aroma and palatability. After it 
has reached maturity it can remain a certain time in the soil without being 
changed. However, after a time it is rapidly decomposed and its tissues 
become the seat of various chemical reactions or it is devoured by insects. 



TRUFFLES. 



451 



Cultivation of Truffles. — The truffle may only be grown in the midst of 
very favorable conditions of climate, altitude, mellowness of the soil, moisture, 
and proper shade. The planting of truffle trees serves as a vehicle for the spores 
which are later to give birth to the mycelium which itself produces the truffle. 
The spores of the truffles usually reach the forests in which they are grown 
by natural means without being particularly planted. Sometimes, however, 
the spores are carried directly to the soil where the new crop is to be grown. 

Geographic Distribution. — The truffle, like the mushroom, is spread over 
all parts of the earth. In Europe it is especially abundant in France- and 
Italy. The provinces in France where it grows in greatest abundance are 
Provence, Dauphine, Languedoc, and Perigord. 

Principal Varieties. — The varieties of truffles are not so numerous as 
mushrooms, of which perhaps a thousand different varieties are known, 
but still they are sufficiently numerous. One of those frequently cultivated in 
France is known as truffles of Perigord {Tuber melanosporum Vittad.). It grows 
best under the shade of a growing walnut or a young oak. The tubers of 
these plants, which are the part valuable for food, may weigh from 60 to 500 
grams. Other botanical varieties which are much cultivated are Tuber brumale 
Vittad., Tuber ccstivum Mich., Tuber magnatum Vittad., and many others. 

Harvesting of Truffles. — The truffle comes into production from the sixth 
to the tenth year after planting the appropriate forest trees. It is easy to 
determine the year when the harvest should begin, since during the preceding 
year there is found in the soil some hypogaean mushrooms which may be 
considered as precursors of the truffles. Moreover, the soil under the tree 
becomes practically free of all vegetation. The truffle ripens from November 
to April, according to its variety. It is important that it should not be har- 
vested except at the period of complete maturity. For harvesting purposes 
certain animals are made use of, such as the dog and hog. These animals 
have a delicate smell in these matters and only bring out of the soil the ripe 
truffles while they leave the others. Man is not able to make this nice dis- 
tinction, and harvests all indiscriminately, from which there results great 
financial loss. In the harvesting of truffles the ground should be gone over 
about once in eight days in order that the tubercles may be secured during 
the whole winter at the proper time of maturity. When the truffles are devel- 
oped the soil above them is hilled or cracked, especially after rains. These 
are the places which are selected for the harvesting when it is done by the 
hand of man. 

Harvesting by Means of Flies. — When the weather is warm and clear there 
is seen above the place where the tubers are lying, a multitude of flies, — these 
mark the place where the harvest should be made. The best time for this 
kind of a harvest is about nine o'clock in the morning. Good results are 
not obtainable from this sign except when the sun rises clear and becomes 



452 FUNGI AS FOODS. 

afterward warm. In order to find the files tlie liusbandman stoops down 
near tiie surface of the soil and loolcs horizontally over it. The colonies of 
flies are thus easily distinguished, and below each one of these colonies the 
truffles are found. This is also an ineffective method because only the over- 
ripened tubercles attract the files while those in their very prime are not thus 
marked. 

Harvesting with Hogs. — The utilization of hogs for harvesting purposes 
is by far the best and most economical method. It is employed especially 
in Perigord and Midi. The harvesting can be either in the morning or after- 
noon. The hogs which are used for harvesting should be previously well 
fed in order to prevent them from eating the trufQes which they dig out 
of the ground. Each animal is led with a rope. As soon as the hog 
gets the scent of truffles it pounces upon them and rapidly uncovers them 
with its snout. When the weather is favorable a hog can easily smell 
a truffle at a distance of 150 feet. As soon as the animal has brought the 
truffle to the surface instead of allowing him to eat it he should be recompensed 
by giving him some suitable food such as maize. If this little attention is ne- 
glected the animal soon becomes discouraged and refuses to w^ork any longer. 
Before leaving the spot the hog assures himself that no other truffles are con- 
tained in that neighborhood. When the hog becomes very tired he walks very 
slowly and with his mouth open. It is then necessary to give him a period 
of rest before continuing the harvest. If the search for truffles does not 
bring good results the animal becomes morose, indolent, and refuses to obey. 
Sometimes when the hog is hungry and wants to eat the truffles it is necessary 
to give him a smart blow on the snout with a stick. A special race of hogs 
is used in this harvesting whose parents have also possessed the skill, and thus 
it becomes hereditary. A good hog is able to engage in the harvesting from 
the age of two to 25 years but they do their best work at three or four years. 
A single animal may be able to harvest from six to 40 pounds of truffles 
per day, according to their abundance in the soil. This class of hogs have 
a very high value, and are often sold in the south of France for this sole pur- 
pose at from $30.00 to $70.00 per head. 

Harvesting with the Dog. — The dog is also employed in regions where 
truffles are produced, and especially in those regions where the yield is not 
so great and where the area to be gone over is very large. The dog is used 
especially in the Dauphine, Champagne, Bourgogne, Provence, and Langue- 
doc, and also in the neighborhood of Paris. These dogs are trained, as in 
the case of hogs, especially for this purpose and should be rewarded when 
a find is made, in the same manner as the hog. This recognition of their 
services should never be forgotten if animals of the greatest skill are to be 
secured. The dog, as is the case with the hog, locates the truffles by the scent 
and digs with his four paws until the truffles are laid bare, — the husbandman 



TRUFFLES. 453 

then draws them out of the soil with long forceps. The hog is preferable 
to the clog because it does the whole harvesting itself, whereas in the case of 
the dog the husbandman must finish the operation. 

The yield of the truffle farm is naturally extremely \-aluable, varying with 
the relative abundance of growth and character of the soil itself. Some- 
times the yield drops as low as five pounds per acre and sometimes rises as 
high as 70 pounds per acre. The average price of truffles is $2.00 per 
pound. The largest yield is found in the truffle farms from the tenth to the 
twentieth year. 

Properties of Truffles. — It is difficult to describe the properties of truffles. 
They are, when prepared for the table, black, rather firm in flesh, and have 
a distinct and most agreeable odor and taste. A good truffle is extremely 
firm and resists the ordinary pressure of the finger. If it is soft it shows 
that it is lacking in its best characteristic. 

The size of the truffle has a marked influence upon its value because the 
small truffle loses a large part of its weight in the preparation for eating. 
Truffles of good size are those which weigh from 40 to 50 grams, those of 
first choice weighing from 60 to 100 grams. After the truffle passes 100 
grams in weight the increased weight does not proportionately increase the 
value. The truffles which come from light soil are considered superior to 
those which come from rich soil. If the soil contains a large quantity of iron 
the truffles are usually of finer quality. All truffles are not black, though the 
best ones, like those of Perigord, are black. Others are gray or brown. 

Adulteration of Truffles. — Commerce in truffles is the subject of considerable 
fraud on account of the very high price of the genuine article. The princi- 
pal adulterations are the mixture of the inferior or imperfect varieties with 
the choicest or best varieties. This adulteration is easily discovered by 
making a careful examination of the tubercles individually. Another fraud 
which is very much practiced is the introduction of soil into the cracks or 
crevices in order to increase their weight. This adulteration, of course, is 
easily discovered by anyone who prepares the truffles for the table. Another 
form of adulteration is the mingling with the ripe truffle of those which have 
not reached maturity. The unripe tubercles have very little flavor or taste 
and are thus easily distinguished from those which are mature. Also 
practiced is the pressing together with some kmd of a glue of a number of 
smaller truffles in order to form a large mass, as if it were an entire truffle, 
and thus securing a larger price. This is also a fraud easily discovered. Still 
another form of sophistication is the production of artificial truffles made 
from potatoes and especially those which are partially spoiled which are 
colored in imitation of the truffle itself. Only those who are ignorant of the 
texture of the truffle can be deceived by this gross imitation. Another form 
of adulteration is the sale of the truffle comins; from regions less esteemed 



454 FUNGI AS FOODS. 

for their products for those of other more esteemed regions as for instance, 
the sale of truffles from Sarladais or from Domme for those of Perigord. 

Preservation of the Truffle During Transit. — For the purpose of keeping 
truffles in good condition during transit they may be placed in moss, fine 
sand, or powdered chalk. They can be kept in this way for a few days 
during transit, but should not be long preserved in this manner. Truffles 
may also be preserved indefinitely by sterilization. It is necessary to do 
this whenever they are to be sent over long distances or kept for a long time. 
The methods of sterilizing are not different from those described for ordinary 
vegetables. Truffles are also preserved by desiccation, but in this case they 
lose something of their odor and taste and are not so highly esteemed. Finally 
the truffles are sometimes preserved by cooking them and preserving them 
in wine or olive oil. (Raymond Brunet, "Manuel Pratique de la Culture 
des Champignons et de la Truffe.") 

Food Value of Fungi. — While the mushroom and the truffle are the prin- 
cipal fungi used as food they are by no means the only kinds. Their value, 
as has already been indicated, is rather condimental than nutritive. Those, 
however, who have eaten fresh or well preserved mushrooms or truffles, 
cooked in the best style of the culinary art, are fully acquainted with their 
value. The fear of poisoning does much to restrict the use of the wild mush- 
rooms. The fields and forests are full of many varieties of these fungi, espe- 
cially in the autumn. Very few of the varieties are poisonous, but the con- 
servative gourmand hesitates to consume the fruits of his own activity as a 
collector. In the hills of the Blue Ridge Mountains near Harper's Ferry I 
have seen large areas of the forest almost covered with these growths in August 
and September, but the courage leading to their consumption was wanting. 

In order to guard against any danger in the consumption of fungi of this 
kind it is highly desirable that some more certain index of innocence be avail- 
able than mere appearance. Experiments might be made to see whether the 
extract of the sample would poison flies when fed mixed with some sweet sub- 
stance which would encourage consumption. Even a small chicken or other 
small domesticated animal could be fed a considerable quantity of the sample 
and the result awaited. Such precautions would largely or entirely prevent 
the very serious consequences of ingesting poisonous varieties. If such pre- 
cautions are not used the quantity of a mushroom of unknown character con- 
sumed should be limited to a very small amount. This would avoid the danger 
of a fatal result. The best of all precautions, however, in the presence of 
strange varieties of mushrooms, is complete abstention. 

It is quite dangerous for the unskilled to be guided by the pictures or de- 
scriptions of the toxic fungi. In this case, however, nature has provided very 
many innocent varieties for each one that is poisonous. The probability of 
immunity, however, is not a hcense to promiscuous consumption. 



PART IX. 

SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, 
AND HONEY. 



SUGAR. 

The term "sugar" is applied by common consent to the pure sugar com- 
mercially prepared from the sugar cane and the sugar beet. These two 
kinds of sugar are sometimes designated by their own name, as, for instance, 
the purchaser wull ask for cane sugar or beet sugar. When no other name 
appears the term sugar is applied as above. 

In Europe the principal sugar used is that derived from the sugar beet. 
In the United States the principal sugar is that derived from the sugar cane. 
Notable quantities of sugar are also found in commerce derived from the 
maple tree, a small quantity from sorghum, and in Asia a considerable quantity 
is made from the palm. 

Chemically, sugar belongs to the class of bodies known as sucrose or sac- 
charose and is a compound in a pure state consisting solely of carbon, oxygen, 
and hydrogen, typical of that class of foods of which starch is the most impor- 
tant member, known as carbohydrates. The elements mentioned are com- 
bined in sugar in the proportion of 12 parts of carbon, 22 of hydrogen, 
and 1 1 of oxygen. 

The quantity of sugar consumed by the people of the United States is 
very large. Excluding molasses, honey, and sirups the quantity consumed 
in the United States in the year ending December 31, 1905, was 2,632,216 tons. 
There should be added to this the total quantity of sugar found in the articles 
of diet which are so common in this country in the form of honey, sirups, and 
molasses. 

Origin of Sugar. — In the earliest times practically the only sugar which 
was used by man was that stored by the bees, namely, honey. The sugar 
cane is indigenous to Asia and was not known as a source of sugar in Europe 
until the 13th or 14th century, when it was brought by Eastern merchants to 
Europe. The discovery of America and the introduction of sugar cane into 
the islands adjacent thereto opened up a new field for the culture of that 
plant and laid the foundation of the great industry which followed. It was 

455 



456 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

not, however, until 100 years ago that the sugar cane industry assumed any- 
thing like the proportions which indicated its subsequent growth. About 
1747 sugar cane was introduced into Louisiana and soon thereafter, about 1790, 
became one of the most important crops of that state. Until the beginning 
of the Civil War Louisiana produced a large proportion of the cane sugar 
consumed in the United States. Duruig the Civil War the industry was 
almost totally destroyed, but since then it has grown until it has assumed 
greater proportions than ever before but constantly diminishing proportions 
in relation to the total supply. Louisiana is somewhat too far north for the 
most economic production of sugar cane, since it is subject to injury by frosts. 
Sugar cane is a plant which is very sensitive to cold weather and is usually 
killed by a hard frost. For this reason its greatest development has occurred 
in tropical countries, especially in Cuba, the Hawaiian Islands, and in other 
similar localities. At the present time by far the largest part of the sugar 
made from sugar cane in the world is produced in Cuba and the Hawaiian 
Islands, — the Cuban crop amounting, in round numbers, to 1,200,000 tons 
and the Hawaiian to about 400,000 tons. 

Beet Sugar.— The fact that beet sugar is contained in the common garden 
beet was first discovered by a German chemist, Margraff, in 1747. This 
important discovery remained dormant for nearly half a century when one 
of Margraff's pupils, the son of a French refugee from Prussia, named Achard, 
resumed the researches which had been started by Margraff and obtained 
results which were then regarded as of an astonishing character.. Achard's 
statements were the subject of doubt and of ridicule and even his French 
co-laborers, members of the academy, doubted the accuracy of his work, 
while thinking it of sufficient interest to look into further. A commission 
consisting of some of the most important members of the Academy of Science, 
imong them Chaptal and Vauquehn, investigated the matter and announced 
that the attempt to make sugar was unsuccessful Ijut thought perhaps the 
maple tree might be grown in France. Nevertheless the commission modified 
the methods of Achard and obtained better results. This was the beginning 
of that long series of investigations which has resulted in the establishment 
of a beet sugar industry, making in round numbers six million tons of sugar 
per year, a quantity considerable greater than that produced from the sugar 
cane. The name of Chaptal has been mentioned as belonging to the com- 
mission which was appointed to study Achard's process because it was through 
the influence of Chaptal, who had then become a Count, that the Emperor 
Napoleon on January 15, 181 1, issued his decree establishing the beet sugar 
industry as a national industry of France and granting a subvention thereto. 
This decree ordered that one hundred thousand hectares should be planted 
in beets in France. Both the taxes and the octroi were withdrawn upon all 
sugar produced from beets for a period of four years. There were also to 



BEET SUGAR. 457 

be established, according to the decree, four central beet sugar factories, 
and it was ordered that the crop of sugar beets in 1812 and 18 13 should reach 
two miUion kilograms of raw sugar. The disastrous Russian campaign 
and the subsequent fall of the Napoleonic dynasty interrupted but did not 
destroy the industry. 

The establishment of an industry by imperial decree is perhaps a novel 
method of procedure and gave rise at that time to a caricature in which the 
Emperor Napoleon and the young King of Rome figured as the most important 
characters. The Emperor was represented as seated in the nursery with a 
cup of coffee before him into which he was squeezing the juice of a beet. 
Near him was seated the young King of Rome voraciously sucking a beet 
root while the nurse standing near and steadfastly observing the process is 
saying to the youthful monarch — "Suck, dear, suck, your father says it's 
sugar." 

By reason of the embargo laid on commerce by England the cane sugar 
coming from tropical islands had been kept out of the continent, so in order 
to supply the deficiency the Emperor Napoleon issued the decree mentioned. 
Due to this impetus the industry grew rapidly in France even after the fall 
of the empire and in the course of 20 years had assumed proportions of com- 
mercial importance. About this period German scientists became interested 
in the matter and by studies directed to the improvement of the sugar in the 
beet and methods of manufacture laid the foundation of a great industry in 
Germany which has outclassed the similar industries of all other countries. 

The production of beet sugar in the United States was only a few thousand 
pounds in 1879 and during that and succeeding years a number of factories 
were built. All of these, however, were unsuccessful except one which was 
located in Alvarado, California, and which has been continuously operated 
ever since. In 1884 the U. S. Department of Agriculture undertook anew 
the investigation of the conditions which were favorable to the sugar beet 
industry and as a result of these investigations a new start was made on a 
more substantial basis. The industry has since then grown extensively in 
importance until at the present time more sugar is made from the sugar beet 
in this country than from the sugar cane. In order that an adequate idea of 
the magnitude of the sugar industry of the world may be gained a statistical 
table is submitted on page 471, showing the production of sugar in the world 
during the year 1909. 

The first important report on the beet sugar industry in the United States 
was made by McMurtrie as a special report No. 28 on the culture of the 
sugar beet, issued in 1880 by the Department of Agriculture. It is there 
recounted that two Philadelphians, as early as 1880, became interested in the 
beet sugar industry which was then in its infancy in Europe. Eight years 
later David L. Child undertook in a small way the production of beet .sugar 



458 



SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 



in Northampton, Mass., and issued a small work on the subject, entitled 
"The Culture of the Beet and the Manufacture of Beet Sugar." He reports 
that he had grown beets that would yield 6 percent of sugar which cost not 
more than ii cents a pound. He made in all about one thousand, three 
hundred pounds of sugar. 

The first factory of any considerable size in the United States was erected 
in 1863 at Chatsworth, 111., but this proved to be a financial failure. A beet 
sugar factory was erected in the Sacramento Valley, CaHfornia, in 1869, and 
after various vicissitudes a permanent factory was established at Alvarado, 




Fig. 



1. — Correct Position of a Mature Beet in the Soil. — {Farmers' Bulletin 55.) 



as has already been mentioned. In 1874 as much as 1,500,000 pounds of 
beet sugar were made in California. In 1870 and 187 1 New Jersey and 
Massachusetts enacted legislation exempting from taxation for a period of 
10 years all property devoted to the production of beet sugar. Factories were 
established in Massachusetts and in Delaware later on, but these all suffered 
financial reverses. It was not until the latter part of the 8o's that the beet 
sugar industry in the United States was placed upon a paying basis, and 
even since that date many ventures in the manufacture of beet sugar have 
resulted in financial loss and in the abandonment of the factories. 

Conditions of Cultivation. — The sugar beet in the United States does not 



BEET SUGAR. 



459 




460 



SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 



produce its maximum content of sugar in areas where the mean temperature 
for the three months of June, July, and August rises above 70 degrees F. 
The southern Hmit of this area is an irregular, waving line, as indicated in the 
accompanying map (Fig. 69). There are, of course, locahties where high- 
grade beets can be produced south of this line, but in point of fact nearly 
every successful beet sugar enterprise has been located within the field indi- 
cated. There is really no limit to the northern edge of this l>elt except that 
of short seasons, incident to late frosts of spring and early frosts of autumn. 
To successfully compete in the sugar markets of the world the sugir heet 
should enter the factory with an average percentage of sugar of not less than 



"WW 




Fig. 70.— a Firld of Bkets Ready for Harvesting. — {Bureau of Plant Industry.) 



12. Very much richer beets are often produced and in some of the irrigated 
areas of the west, where the climate is remarkably dry, an average percentage 
of 16 and 18 even has been obtained. In the whole beet sugar crop of the 
United States the average percentage of sugar in the beet is probably not far 
from 13 or 14. In this respect it is seen that the beet is richer in sugar than 
the average sugar cane of Louisiana, which does not contain over 11 or 12 
percent of sugar. 

Yield per Acre. — The average yield per acre of sugar beets in the United 
States is unfortunately very low, due chiefly to ignorance of the proper method 
of culture. The sugar beet is more of a garden than a field crop and requires 
special cultivation and fertilization. The average yield in the United States 



BEET SUGAR. 



461 



has probably not ' exceeded eight tons per acre, while the average yield in 
Europe is twelve or thirteen tons per acre. In this respect the Louisiana sugar 
cane has a marked advantage, the average crop being over twenty tons, while 
thirty and even forty tons are often obtained. As soon as our farmers learn 
the principles of culture it is certain that the average yield in the United 
States will be as great as that in Europe. A typical field of beets ready for 
the harvest is shown in Fig.. 70. 

Manufacture. — The manufacture of heet sugar is both a simple and a 
complicated operation. The simplicity of it consists in the fact that it is 
only necessary to extract the saccharine juices of the beet, properly clarify 




Fig. 71.— Beets Ready eor Transportation to ¥\CTOR\.—(Burrai< of Plant Industry.) 



them, and reduce them by evaporation to a point where the sugar will crys- 
tallize. In reality the operation of successful manufacture recjuires elaborate 
and costly machinery and a high degree of technical skill. A brief outline 
of the method will be sulhcient for the purpose of this manual. 

The beets, after harvesting, have the tops cut off with a small quantity of 
the adhering material of the neck of the beet, which contains large quantities 
of salts and is not suitable to enter the factory. In Fig. 71 is shown a view 
of a beet field after the harvest. The beets are then thoroughly washed 
and passed through a slicing machine in which they are cut up into thin 
slices or ribbons. They then enter a series of tanks, known as a diffusion 
battery, in which they are thoroughly treated with hot water, by means of 



462 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

which practically all of the sugar which they contain is extracted. The 
saccharine product obtained, known as the diffusion juice, is treated with a 




Fig. 72. — Diffusion Battery. — (Farmer's Bulletin 32.) 

large excess of lime, heated, and carbonic acid derived from a lime kiln blown 
through it until the lime is all converted into a carbonate carrying down with 



BEET SUGAR. 



463 



it the impurities of the juices. The diffusion juice as it comes from the diffu- 
sion battery is usually almost as black as ink. After carbonatation, as the 
process above is called, it is of a clear, light amber tint. To separate the 
liquid from the solid matter the whole is passed through a filter press from 
which the juice emerges bright and clear and the carbonate of lime with its 
adhering impurities remains in the filter press as hard cakes. This process 
is repeated in order to secure as great a purity as possible in the juice. 

Evaporation. — The purified juice is conducted into multiple-effect vacuum 
pans, Fig. 73, from which the air is partially exhausted by a j)ump, the vacuum 
thus rising in the series. There are usually three or four of these pans joined to- 




pic. 73. — Multiple-effect Evaporating Apparatus. — (Farnwis'' Bulletin 52.) 

gether, — the first one having the least air exhausted from it and the last one the 
most, that is, having the highest vacuum. The vapor which arises from the 
first pan is conducted through the copper coils to the second and serves as 
the heating agent while the vapor from the second pan passes through the copper 
coils to the third and so on to the fourth. Thus the steam used for evaporating 
is turned only on the first pan and Ijy this means a great economy in the use 
of fuel is secured. In this way the juice is evaporated to a sirup. This 
is usually somewhat colored and if white sugar is made it is bleached by 
passing through bone-black or by the application of sulfur fumes. When 
sulfur 's used it is often applied first to the unevaporated juice as well as to the 
sirup. 



464 



SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 



Final Crystallization. — The sirup is now ready for the final process, which 
takes place in what is known as the vacuum strike pan, Fig. 74. A con- 
siderable quantity of sirup is introduced so as to cover the lower coils of this 
pan and, after the vacuum is established by a piimp, evaporated to the crys- 
tallizing point. An additional quantity of cold sirup is then drawn into the pan, 
chilling the mass and thus producing incipient crystallization in the form of ex- 
tremely minute crystals. The evaporation is now continued with the addition 
of sirup from time to time, by which process the sugar crystals begin to grow. 
In the course of a few hours the pan is full of crystals of the size desired. 

Purification of the Sugar. — The vacuum is broken and the crystallized 




Fig. 74.— Vacuum Strike Pan.— {Farmeis' Bulletin 52.) 



mass of sugar drawn into a mixing apparatus whereby all lumps are broken up 
and a uniform magma secured. Thie is done while the mass is still warm. 
Were it allowed to cool it would be extremely difficult to break it up. The 
warm mixture is then passed into the centrifugal machine, by means of which 
the molasses is separated from the crystals and these remain as white pure 
crystals in the pan. The whole process of separating the juice from the 
massecuite, as the mass is called, occupies only a few minutes. Thus the 
sugar is often centrifugalled and in the barrels before it is cold from the 
vacuum pan. 



MANUFACTURE OF CANE SUGAR. 



465 



The above is merely the outHne of a method which requires complicated 
apparatus, often of extensive proportions, and which could not be described in 
detail except in a technical work. It gives the reader, however, an idea of 
how the beet sugar which he eats is made. Often white sugar is not made 
at the sugar factory, in which case the bleaching with bone-black, etc., is omitted 
and a brown sugar is produced which afterward goes to the refinery. 




Fig. 75. — Sugar CanI': Field Ready for Har\i ^i .—{/'hotogiaphrd by II W. Wiley.) 



Growth of Sugar Cane. — The growth of sugar cane is confined to tropical 
and subtropical regions. In the United States this crop is grown chiefly in 
Louisiana and Texas. Its cultivation does not extend northward beyond 
the center of Georgia. Typical scenes in sugar cane fields are shown in 
Figs. 75 and 76. 

Manufacture of Cane Sugar. — In the manufacture of sugar from the 
sugar cane the first process, naturally, after the harvest, is the expression of the 
31 



466 



SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 



juice from the cane. At the time of harvesting the canes are topped in such 
a way as to cut off the green portion of the upper part of the stalk and the 
leaves also are removed. 

There are two methods of extracting the juice from the cane, one similar 
to that described for the sugar beet but used very little. Only one or two 
factories in the United States use this method of extraction. The most 
common method of extraction is by passing the canes through heavy mills. 




Fig. 76. — Cane Field Partly Harvested.— {P/io/o,g-rap/ied dy H. W. Jl'Hey.) 



These mills are made of great strength sa as to bear an immense pressure 
without breaking. The largest mills have a capacity of grinding from 500 
to 1000 tons of cane a day. Many of them grind only from 200 to 
500 tons per day. The mills are nearly always placed in series, that is, the 
cane is subjected to a double pressure. The first mill is uniformly composed 
of three rollers of the same size and set so that the first and second are not 
quite so close together as the second and third. The second mill also often 



MANUFACTURE OF MAPLE SUGAR. 467 

consists of three rollers the same as the first mill, but sometimes only two. 
Occasionally a third mill is used. It is customary to sprinkle the crushed 
cane as it comes from the first mill with water before it enters the second mill, 
thus securing a greater degree of extraction. The residue from the mill is 
called bagasse and is commonly carried .directly to the furnace and used as 
fuel, furnishing steam, to evaporate the juice and drive the mill. The mills 
extract from 75 to 80 percent of the Aveight of cane in juice. The sugar 
cane contains about 88 percent of its weight of sugar juice. It is seen, 
therefore, that a considerable portion of the sugar remains in the bagasse. 
By the process of diffusion a larger proportion of the sugar is extracted than 
by milling, but the resulting juices are very much diluted and require a greater 
combustion of fuel for evaporation. 

Clarifying the Juice. — The juice as expressed from the cane is a dirty- 
looking mass and requires to be clarified before it is concentrated. It is a 
very common practice to subject the fresh juice to the fumes of burning 
sulfur. In all cases the first step in the clarifying is the addition of lime 
to neutralize the natural acidity of the juice and facilitate the coagulation 
of the dissolved matter. The limed juice is next subjected to heating and 
as the boiling point approaches a separation of the suspended and coagulated 
matter takes place, the light coming to the top and the heavy falling to the 
bottom. The common method of separating these bodies is by skimming 
the top coagulum and settling the bottom portion and drawing off the clear 
juice therefrom. In addition to this to get a more complete separation the 
heated juice may be run through a filter press. 

The clarification of sugar cane juice, as is seen, is much more simple than 
that of beet juice. The method employed for the clarification of beet juice 
is sometimes used for cane juice but not very frequently. 

Eva poration of Clarified Juice. — After the clarification is completed the 
further treatment of the juice is exactly the same as that for the sugar beet. 

Manufacture of Maple Sugar. — The maple trees in the United States 
grow in the New England states, especially in Vermont, and in New York, 
Ohio, and Indiana. Very little sugar is made in other states. The season 
of manufacture is at the beginning of spring, when the sap first begins to 
run and before the buds of the new leaves have developed 'ver\' extensively. 
The season lasts from four to six weeks. In New England it begins the 
latter part of JNIarch and in Ohio and Indiana in February. The trees are 
bored and a tubular spile driven into the wood through which the sap escapes 
into the bucket or other receptacle. Figs. 77, 78, and 79 are typical scenes 
in a small maple orchard during the season, showing tapping of the trees 
and collection and boiling of the sap. The sap of the maple tree is extremely 
clear and requires but little clarifying. It is usually evaporated in open 
kettles or pans, the vacuum process not being emplojed. The crystallization 



468 



SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 




Pig. 77. — Tapping thi; Mapi.k 'V rkks. —(Coni'tesv Forest Sfivicc, Dfparliiieiit of Agiicultiire.) 




Fig. 78. — Transporting the Sap to the Stgar Wov9,v..— {Courtesy Forest Sei-vice, Defiartmem 

of Agriculture.) 



REFINING OF SUGAR. 



469 



takes place at the final moment of evaporation and usually the whole mass 
is sold as sugar, forming what is known in the cane sugar industry as concrete. 
Maple sugar is never refined, since in the process of refining the peculiar 
flavor and odor which give it its chief value would disappear. The quantity 
of maple sugar made in the United States is almost negligible from a com- 
mercial point of view, amounting annually to only about 10,000 tons. Perhaps 
a greater quantity of maple sap is used in the form of sirup than of sugar. 

Refinmg of Sugar. — All kinds of raw sugar but maple are refined 
before entering commerce. The public taste has demanded a pure white 
sugar and in so far as beet sugar is concerned the refining process is a necessity, 
inasmuch as raw beet sugar has a very disagreeable soapy taste and odor 




Fig. 79.— BoTi.iNG the Maple Sap.— (Com iesy Forest Service, Depai Inieiit of Agriculture.) 



which render it unfit for consumption. On the other hand raw cane sugar 
is aromatic, fragrant, and delicious to a far greater degree in the raw state 
than when it is refined, since after the refining process it is difficult to distin- 
guish the product of the beet juice from that of the sugar cane. 

Process of Refining. — The manipulation attending the refining of sugar 
is a somewhat simple one, but experience has shown that it can only be done 
economically in very large establishments, many of which cost millions 
of dollars. The attempt to refine sugar on a small scale makes the product 
too expensive to compete commercially with the product of the large refinery. 
The raw sugar is first mixed with water and melted and reduced to the con- 
dition of a sirup. In this state it is treated with lime and clarified as has 



470 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

been described for sugar cane juice. Sometimes at this stage it is also treated 
with sulfur fumes, but not usually. After clarifying the juice is filtered through 
bags or filter presses so as to free it from all suspended matter. In order 
to decolorize it it is then passed through large cylinders filled with bone-black 
from which it emerges quite or almost water-white. When the bone-black 
loses its decolorizing properties it is removed from the cylinder and reburned 
in closed retorts, by which process it regains its power to decolorize the 
sugar solution. The decolorized juices are next taken into vacuum strike 
pans, as has already been described in the manufacture of sugar, only of a 
much larger size. In these pans they are evaporated and crystallized and the 
sugar separated in centrifugals as described above. After the sugar comes 
from the centrifugal it is placed in a granulating apparatus, a large revolving 
drum supplied with a steam jacket from which it emerges dry. Granulated 
sugar is almost chemically pure, often containing 99.9 percent of pure sugar. 
The molasses from the centrifugal is diluted, passed through bone-black, and 
reboiled and a new lot of sugar obtained. Finally when the product becomes 
so low in sugar as not to yield a white product lower grades of brown sugar are 
made, which are usually sold without drying and contain considerable quan- 
tities of moisture and some molasses. The final molasses which no longer 
crystallizes is sold usually for mixing with glucose to make table sirup. It 
contains so much mineral matter in solution as to be hardly suitable for 
food purposes. 

Loaf sugar, cut loaf, etc., are forms of pure sugar which are pressed or cut 
in the forms in which they appear on the market and then dried instead 
of being dried in a granulated state as described. Powdered sugar is dry 
refined sugar reduced to a fine powder. 

In the refining of sugar it is quite customary to wash the crystals in the 
centrifugal with ultramarine blue suspended in water. This is done in 
order to form with the blue water and the yellow tint, which sometimes accom- 
panies the crystals, a perfectly white appearance, on the optical principle 
which shows that when a blue and a yellow tint are mixed a white color 
results. This process is not required for the first-class product coming from 
the first crystallization and very often dealers require sugar for special purposes 
which has not been so treated. It would be advisable if all consumers should 
demand a sugar of the same character. 

"While the refining of sugar can probably never be abolished it should not 
be forgotten that the very finest sugar, from a palatable point of view, is that 
made from the maple or sugar cane without refining in which the crystals 
retain their natural yellow color. If consumers understood thoroughly the 
value of a sugar of this kind they would demand it instead of the dead white 
product which is now in vogue. 

As has been stated a raw sugar of this kind could not be used if made 
from beets. 



ADULTERATION OF SUGAR. 



471 



Sugar Crops of the World. — These figures include local consumption 
of home production wherever known and are taken from Willett and Gray's 
estimates of the world's sugar crops, being stated in tons of 2,240 pounds: 



Country. 


1905-6. 


1906-7. 


1907-8. 


1908-9. 


1909-10. 


Cane Sugar. 

north america. 

United States : 
Contiguous — 


Tons. 

336,752 
12,000 

383,225 
213,000 


Tons. 
230,000 
13,000 

392,871 
210,000 


Tons. 

340,000 
12,000 

465,288 
200,000 


Tons. 

355,000 
15,000 

477.817 
245,000 


Tons. 

325000 




Noncontiguous — 


490,000 
280,009 






Total United States 


944,977 


845,871 


1,017,288 


1,092,817 


1,105,000 


Cuba 

Mexico, Central America, West Indies 


1,178,749 
428,208 


1,427.673 
414,500 


961 ,958 
398,182 


1,513.582 
402,061 


1,700,000 
467,000 


Total ' 


2,551.934 


2 ,688,044 


2, ,377, 428 


3,008,460 


3,272,000 


South America 


700,001 


628,777 


.540.518 


694.655 


684,000 


Europe : 


15.722 


16,400 


11,000 


20,000 


16,000 








2,926,209 


.^,443,794 


3.421.827 


3.353.685' 


3,260,000 






317.967 


326,825 


284,870 


318,992 


395,000 






230,000 


249,000 


280,725 


231.098 


217,328 




Grand total, cane sugar 


6,741,833 


7,352,840 


6,916,368 


7,626.890 


7,.S44.328 


Beet Sugar. 

north america. 

United States 


279,393 
11,419 


431.796 
11.367 


413.954 
7.943 


380,254 
6,964 


457.562 
8,802 






Total 


290,812 


443.163 


421,897 


.387.21S 


466,364 




EUROPE. 

Austria-Hungary 


1,509,789 
328,770 
1,089,684 
2,418,156 
207,189 
968,500 
410,255 


1,343.940 
282,804 
756,094 

2,239,179 
181,417 

1,440,130 
467,244 


1,424.657 
232,352 
727.712 

2,129,597 
175.184 

1,410,000 
462,772 


1,398,000 
258,000 
802 ,000 

2,080,000 
214,000 

1,265,000 
500,000 


1,260,000 
250.000 






2,040,000 








1,150,000 
460,000 








Total 


6,932.343 


6.710.808 


6.562,274 


, 6,517,000 


6,185,000 


Grand total, beet sugar 


7.223.155 


7-153.971 


6,984,171 


6,904,218 


6,651,364 


Grand total, cane and beet sugar 


13,964,988 


14,506,811 


13.900,539 


i4,,53i,io8 


14,495,692 



Adulteration of Sugar. — In the United States there are few adultera- 
tions of sugar practiced. The product has grown so cheap not only in tlie 
United States but all over the world that such practices are no longer remu- 
nerative, and whenever adulteration ceases to pay it requires no law^ to prevent 
it. White sugars have been adulterated from time to time by the admixture 
of white earth or terra alba (either ground silicate, ground gypsum, or ground 
chalk). I have never found any sophistication of this kind in an American 



472 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

white sugar. White flour has also been added to sugar as an adulterant,, 
but that form of adulteration is not known ha this country. The only adul- 
teration which is found in American sugar, in so far as I know, is that incident 
to the process of manufacture which I have described. When sulfur is used 
in sulfuring the juice before clarifying a trace of sulfurous acid may still 
adhere to the finished product. When bluing is used the particles of ultra- 
mari-ne blue attach themselves to the sugar crystals and become an adulteration. 
I have seen sugar so blued that on solution the water would turn blue. Sugar 
granules are also sometimes washed with salts of tin, a very poisonous com- 
pound, and a trace of these salts may still adhere to the crystals. Sugar 
has also been mixed with dextrose made from starch, in other words, from 
starch sugar, or as it is ordinarily called, anhydrous grape sugar. This is a 
form of adulteration which has been little practiced on account of the diffi- 
culty of getting a dry starch sugar in commercial quantities. Recent im- 
provements in the manufacture of dextrose have made it very probable that 
this form of adulteration may be more frequent in the future. As a food 
product pure dextrose is probably as valuable as sugar, but if it can be made 
cheaper it would become a fraudulent adulteration or if added in any way 
without notice its addition is fraudulent and constitutes an adulteration. There 
is little, however, to fear from this form of adulteration as long as the price 
of sugar does not go much above 5 cents per pound. 

Sugar as a Food. — The food value of sugar is well defined. It furnishes 
next to oil and fat the most complete food for heat and energy that can be 
consumed, ranking, of course, as starch in this particular. Sugar is a quick- 
acting food and therefore is especially valuable to relieve exhaustion. It is 
particularly useful for soldiers on a forced march or for people engaged in 
any extraordinary effort. A lump of sugar eaten occasionally keeps up the 
strength and prevents exhaustion. The value of sugar as a food is not appre- 
ciated as it should be, since it is valued mostly for its condimental and preser- 
vative properties. 

SIRUP. 

A very common form in which sugar is used in this country is in the form 
of sirup. The United States more than any other nation consumes viscous 
liquid solutions of sugar as a condimental food product, especially at breakfast 
on hot cakes and other articles of diet. - Table sirup is an almost uniform 
article of diet upon the American breakfast table whether in the household,, 
the hotel, or restaurant. 

Maple Sirup. — Among the sirups, first of all must be mentioned the most 
valuable and highly appreciated, namely, maple sirup. Maple sirup is the 
product of the evaporation of the juice of the sap of the maple tree to a con- 
sistency in which only about 30 or 35 percent of its weight is water. This 
is sufficient to prevent the crystallization of the sugar for at least a reasonable 



MAPLE SIRUP. 



473 



length of time. IVIaple sirup is best when freshly made, and if kept through 
the summer should be put in tins and tightly sealed while hot. In this condi- 
tion it will keep its original flavor almost entirely, whereas if left in barrels 
or other ordinary receptacles its flavor is impaired. Maple sirup is also 
made by dissolving maple sugar as occasion may require, but this kind is not 
so highly prized as that made directly from the maple sap. 




Fig. So.— Small Primitivk Mill for Extracting JncE from Sugar Cane for Sirup Making. 
—{Pkulugiaph by H. W. liitey.) 



Analysis of Maple Sirup. — The average composition of ten samples of 

maple sirup of known purity is as follows: 

Total solids, 7o-5° percent 

Water, 31-4° " 

Ash, 53 

Sucrose, 64.10 " 

Reducing sugar, 1.30 " 

The study of the ash of maple sirup is an important point in connection 
with its purity. It is distinctly different from the ash of the sugar cane and 




474 



CANE sinup. 475 

sorghum, and its study s!-ouid not be neglected in all cases where there is 
any doubt respecting the genuineness of the samples. 

Cane Sirup. — Sugar cane sirup is made by expressing the juice of the sugar 
cane as described, clarifying, and evaporating the juice to a consistency where 
only about 25 or 30 percent of the water remains, which is sufificient to prevent 
the sugar from crystallizing for a reasonal)le length of time. Sugar cane 
sirup is made in hundreds of small factories in the states of Texas, Louisiana, 




Fig. 82. — Relative Length of Canes I'sed for Sirup Making.— (/'//t>/o?•^fl/>// />,v H. If. IViVrr.) 

Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida. It is usually 
made in a small way with mills dri:-en by a horse or mule and with primiti\e 
methods of evaporation in an ordinary kettle. Hard pine wood is burned for 
the evaporation and the empyreumatic flavor of the pine is often absorbed by 
the sirup. In Figs. 80 and 81 are shown typical apparatus used for the manu- 
facture of sirup from sugar cane in Georgia and in Fig. 82 the relative length 
of canes ready for manufacture. In factories where modern apparatus is used, 



476 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY, 

in so far as I know, the vacuum process is not emplo}'ed. In fact, except for 
economy of fuel, the vacuum process would be objectionable, since by boiling 
in an ordinary open kettle a larger quantity of sugar is inverted and thus the 
tendency to crystallization is diminished. It is a common but reprehensible 
practice in making sugar cane sirup to subject the freshly expressed juice to 
the fumes of burning sulfur. This makes a light-colored sirup but introduces 
a substance highly objectionable and one which destroys to a certain degree the 
flavor of the product. Experiments made by the Department of Agriculture 
show that delicious, wholesome, and palatable sugar cane sirup is best made by 
clarifying the expressed juice solely by means of heat and mechanical separa- 
tion of the coagulum. The addition of lime or any other clarifying reagent 
is unnecessary and only makes a sirup of less desirable and less palatable 
quality. Since cane sirup is made uniformly in open kettles or pans there 
is a slight caramelization of the sirup during evaporation that gives a red- 
dish tint to the product, which should be a mark of superiority instead of 
being so often regarded as a mark of inferiority. The consumer should 
always be suspicious of a sugar cane sirup which is light in color. It is prob- 
ably a case of "Greeks bearing gifts" in the form of sulfurous acid or other 
injurious bleaching materials. Sugar cane sirup is not appreciated by the 
people of the North. In fact it is rarely seen or consumed by them. In 
its own country, however, it is a staple article of diet, highly esteemed, whole- 
some, palatable, and nutritious. 

Analysis of Sugar Cane Sirup. — The average composition of thirteen 
samples of cane sirup of known purity is as follows: 

Total solids, 75.0 percent 

Water, 25.8 " 

Ash, 1.2 " 

Sucrose, 52.0 " 

Reducing sugar, 17.6 " 

Sorghum Sirup.— The sorghum plant {Sorghum saccharatum) is grown 
practically in every state in the Union, but principally in Kansas. Some 
of the very best sorghum sirup made in the United States, however, is made 
in Minnesota, and this plant can be used for sirup making purposes over 
the whole area of the United States. 

The method of manufacture is exactly that of sugar cane sirup. It is 
made in small mills mostly driven by horse power, though some large factories 
have steam apparatus for its manufacture. It should also be made without 
the use of any other clarifying reagent than heat. Sorghum sirup has a 
peculiar flavor which is not disagreeable to those accustomed to its use. It 
is extremely wholesome, highly nutritious, and palatable. It is a staple 
article of diet wdth thousands of families in the United States, principally 
in the northern and central portion. It rarely is made in the New England 
states and not very often in those southern states where sugar cane can be 



MOLASSES. 477 

used in its place, since the sugar cane makes a sirup which is preferred by 

most people. 

Analysis oj Sorghum Sirup. — The average composition of ten samples of 

sorghum sirup of known purity is as follows: 

Total solids, T^-o percent 

Water, 2S.6 

Ash, 40 " 

Sucrose, 3^-7 

Reducing sugar, 26.6 

Molasses. — The term "molasses" is properly applied to the saccharine 
product which is separated from sugar in the process of manufacture. It is 
well to clearly discriminate in the use of the term in order that no confusion 
or misunderstanding may arise. To this end the terms "sirup" and "molas- 
ses" may be contrasted. A sirup is the direct product of the evaporation of 
the juice of a sugar-yielding plant or tree without the removal of any of the 
sugar. The term molasses applies to the same process with the exception 
of the fact that sugar has been removed at least partially by crystallization 
and some kind of mechanical separation of the crystals from the remaining 
liquid. Molasses, therefore, to use a term employed in chemistry, may be 
considered the "mother Hquid" which has produced the crystallization of 
the sugar. The production of molasses has already been sufficiently de- 
scribed in the article on sugar making. The molasses is either separated by 
gravitation as in the old style of drying sugar or, as at the present time, almost 
exclusively by centrifugal action. The molasses naturally contains all the 
substances in solution or suspension which are not retained upon the gauze 
of the centrifugal. It differs from the total mass of evaporated sugar liquid 
only in the fact that a large portion of the sucrose or crystallizable sugar has 
been separated. The sugar juices of the cane and sorghum contain con- 
siderable quantities of sugar of a kind different from sucrose or common sugar, 
namely, an invert sugar, a "reducing sugar, "as it is called, which consists 
usually of about equal parts of dextrose and levulose. During the process 
of manufacture small portions of the sucrose are converted into sugar of 
this kind thus increasing its quantity. In the "final crystallization there is 
always a portion of sugar uncrystallized remaining as a viscous liquid in con- 
tact with the crystallized particles. This natural invert sugar which is in 
the juice, the small portion formed from the sucrose during the process of 
manufacture, and the part of sucrose remaining uncrystallized in the mother 
liquid constitutes the molasses. In the washing of sugar the water which 
is used also passes into the molasses thus diluting it somewhat from its natural 
consistence. In the sugar refinery the molasses is made up of practically 
such materials as just mentioned, but inasmuch as the separation of the sugar 
is more complete the other portions of the molasses, namely, the mineral 
salts, particularly appear in a very much larger proportion than in the ordinary 
molasses as will be seen by the analysis of these bodies. 



478 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

Varieties of Molasses. — New Orleans Molasses. — The real New Orleans 
molasses is the product of the manufacture of sugar in the old-fashioned way 
in the open kettle and without the aid of vacuum pans. In this process the 
crystallization of the sugar does not take place during the boiling but the 
concentrated licjuid is placed in tanks where the crystallization takes place. 
When this is complete it is broken up into small fragments and placed in a 
hogshead standing in an upright position, the bottom of which is perforated 
and covered with straw or fragments of sugar cane. When the hogshead is 
filled wnth the crystallized mixture, through the action of gravity the liquid 
portion gradually sinks and passes out at the bottom of the hogshead. This 
natural separation of the molasses makes a product of exquisite. palatability 
and one of a character which it is difficult to equal even by the production of 
high-grade sirup. Before the Civil War this kind of molasses was used 
throughout the United States. At the present time only extremely small 
quantities of it are made inasmuch as the open kettle process is practically 
a lost industry in the South. The term "New Orleans molasses" as used 
at the present day, therefore, applies to a product of quite a different char- 
acter. 

Sugar Cane Molasses. — Since the introduction of modern processes of mak- 
ing sugar, namely the vacuum pan and centrifugal process, the character of 
molasses from the sugar cane factory has constantly deteriorated. This 
is a natural deterioration due to the improvement in the method of sugar 
making. Much larger quantities of sugar are now obtained in a crystallized 
state than formerly. The molasses is to this extent impoverished and the 
impurities contained therein increased proportionately. It is quite common 
now in the process of manufacture of sugar from sugar cane to secure at 
least three crystallizations. 

First Molasses. — When the sugar is crystallized in the vacuum pans and 
separated from the molasses in the centrifugal the product which is obtained 
is called "first molasses." Usually this molasses is diluted to a sirup and 
reboiled in connection with the clarified juices direct from the sugar cane 
and thus a second portion of sugar is obtained or the molasses may be boiled 
separately and a second crystallization of the sugar separated by the centrifugal. 
The molasses from this product is called "second molasses" and is inferior in 
quality to the first molasses. 

Third Molasses.— The second molasses is reboiled to a thick consistency, 
placed in wagons, and transferred to a warm room where it is allowed to 
remain, sometimes for two or three months, when a third crystallization takes 
place. The sugar from this crystallization is separated as usual by the 
centrifugal, and a third molasses produced of still greater inferiority. Thus, 
in the best sugar factories high-grade molasses is not made in the United 
States but only that of inferior quality. This molasses is largely used for 



MIXED SIRUPS. 



479 



fermentation, or is fed to the mules on the plantations. It is also employed to 
a certain extent for mixing purposes as indicated above. 
Analysis of First, Second, and Third Molasses. — 



Grades. 



First, . . 
Second 
Third. 



Total 
Solids. 


Sucrose. 


Dextrose. 


Levulose. 


Percent. 
80.00 
80.00 
80.00 


Percent. 
53.60 
41.70 
31-70 


Percent. 

S.76 

12.20 

15.00 


Percent. 

8.00 

12.50 

16.50 



Ash. 



Albumi- 

1 NOIDS. 



Amids. 



Acids 

AND 

Gums. 



Percent. 
4.00 

5-35 
6.30 



Percent. 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 



Percent. 
0.94 
1.50 
2.00 



Percent. 
4-50 
6.50 
8.20 



The increasing content of dextrose and levulose, of ash, acids, and gums, 
and the decreasing content of sucrose or pure sugar are characteristic of the 
second and third molasses. 

The above analyses show the progressive change in molasses due to the 
separation of the successive portions of sugar and indicate the lowering of the 
quality of the molasses, at least for food purposes, as the separation of the 
sugar becomes more complete. It is evident that in the manufacture of 
sugar in this way, in which very probably an effort is made to get the highest 
possible yield, the resulting final molasses is a substance quite unfit for human 
consumption. 

Sugar-house Molasses.— Aii&-ni\on has already been called to the production 
of sugar-house molasses or sugar refinery molasses. This is a product which 
in its physical appearance is far superior to the third molasses of the sugar 
factory and this superiority is due to the fact that all suspended matter in 
the refined molasses has been removed by filtration. In so far as soluble 
materials which are not food is concerned, however, the refiner}- molasses 
contains even larger proportions than the sugar factory molasses. The 
refinery molasses is not usually considered sviitable for food except when 
diluted as has been before indicated in the wav of mixing sirup. 

Mixed Sirups. — By far the greater part of the sirups used in the United 
States are mixtures of two or more saccharine substances. The glucose of 
commerce is the base and perhaps chief constituent of the most of these 
mixtures. The glucose, being colorless and of a thick body, forms an ideal 
base as far as physical properties are concerned, for a table sirup. The 
quantity used varies very largely, but in general the glucose constitutes by 
far the larger percentage of the mixed product. Since glucose has only a 
very slightly sweet taste and is devoid of the general palatable properties 
which make a sirup attractive, it is colored and flavored with the product 
of the sugar cane or the maple tree. Sorghum sirup is also used very exten- 
sively in mixing. The process of mixing is an extremely simple one. The 
glucose is warmed vnitil it is easily workable and the added sirups or molasses 



480 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

which are used for coloring and flavoring mixed intimately with it. In large 
factories this is done by mechanical mixers while in a small way it may be 
done by hand. Instead of glucose, one sirup itself may be used as the base 
and mixed with another for flavor, as, for instance, in the case of mixed maple 
sirup. Very commonly the brown sugar is melted with water and this is used 
as a base for the formation of sirups. Whichever may be the case the principle 
of the process remains the same, namely, using as the base a cheaper and 
less palatable material and flavoring and coloring with the more expensive 
and more palatable material. From a dietetic and commercial point of view 
there can be no valid objection raised to this method of mixing sirups. The 
product is, as a rule, attractive, palatable, and wholesome. 

Attention has already been called to the fact that the final molasses in the 
sugar refinery, after all the sugar has been extracted that can possibly be 
gotten out by the most approved modern process, is used very extensively for 
mixing purposes. This molasses has a very high content of soluble salts, 
reaching often 8 percent or more, which give a distinct flavor and character. 
It also has acquired a certain flavor quite distinct from cane sirup, which 
gives it a peculiar value as a flavoring agent. It is commonly known as "re- 
finer's sirup " and is a clear product, free from suspended matter by reason of 
its repeated filtration. It can thus be mixed with glucose and forms a bright 
mixture, devoid of suspended matter and turbidity, and is attractive to the eye. 
Ten percent of molasses of this kind added to a glucose will make a mixture 
which is attractive and salable, the objectionable qualities of each ingredient 
being obscured. The other products which are used for mixing with the 
glucose in the manufacture of table sirup consist of the molasses obtained from 
cane sugar factories or the sirups made directly from the sugar cane and 
sorghum. All these bodies have valuable mixing properties and small quanti- 
ties of them give sufficient color and flavor to the mixed product. 

Adulteration 0} Mixed Simps. — The adulteration of mixed sirups consists 
chiefly of adulterations that are in the materials from which they are made. 
Glucose itself often contains sulfurous acid used for bleaching in the process 
of manufacture. It also contains considerable quantities of sulfate or chlorid 
of lime incident to its manufacture and coming from the sulfuric or hydro- 
chloric acid used in the hydrolysis of the starch from which it is made. The 
molasses which is used for coloring and flavoring may also contain injurious 
substances. For instance, sulfurous acid is very extensively used in the 
manufacture of cane sugar and this acid becomes concentrated in the 
molasses. Lime is used very extensively in the clarification of the juices 
and this lime is not wholly separated but some of it is concentrated in the 
molasses. A moderate amount of lime, however, is not objectionable. Salts 
of tin are frequently employed in washing the sugar in a centrifugal and 
these salts are found concentrated in the molasses. The excess of bluing 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 481 

which is used in the centrifugal is also found in the molasses. Various forms 
of acid phosphates are frequently employed in the clarifying of the cane 
juices and a part of these is also found concentrated in the molasijes. In fact 
the molasses from sugar cane factories very frec^uently contains such quan- 
tities of these added substances as to render it unfit for human consumption. 
It is true that these substances are diluted when mixed with glucose, but this 
is not a sufficient excuse to warrant their employment. It is possible to obtain 
unobjectionable sirups and molasses for mixing purposes and manufacturers 
should be held strictly to account if this is not done. In so far as has come 
to my knowledge there are no adulterants directly added to the mixed 
sirups except for bleaching purposes. 

Attention should be called, however, to still another form of adulteration 
due to the fact that the molasses from the sugar cane factories is often so 
dark-colored as to be even unfit for mixing. 

In such cases it is not uncommon to bleach the molasses by adding zinc and 
acid producing nascent hydrogen and leaving the salts of zinc, either the 
sulfite or chlorid as the case may be, in the product. Molasses containing 
salts of any of these heavy metals, namely, zinc, tin, or lead, should be 
rigidly excluded from consumption. 

General Observations. — If a sirup is to be considered in the light of the 
definitions already given, as the result of evaporation, after proper clarification 
of the saccharine juices of sugar-producing plants it is doubtful if the term 
should be used in connection with the mixed products which have been 
described. I have used it because these are the commercial designations. 
Since molasses is also used very extensively in the manufacture of these mixed 
sirups it might be asked if they could not also be as properly called molasses 
as sirup. In England the material which is called molasses in this country 
is usually known as treacle and the very dark molasses coming from the 
refinery or the sugar factory is known in both countries as " black strap." 
If molasses be concentrated to a high degree and pulled while cooling the 
product is known as taffy in this country or toffy in England, — it is also 
known as molasses candy. 

The general conclusion in regard to this matter is that since the processes 
of sugar making have been so improved as to extract the greater part of the 
crystallizable sugar, thus concentrating the residue of an inedible character 
in the molasses and since, further, the use of various chemicals in the clarifying 
of sugar juices has become general, all of which are practically concentrated 
in the molasses, this latter product has practically ceased to be edible. 

The laws relating to the distillation of alcohol have been so amended as 
to permit the production of industrial alcohol, under conditions prescribed 
bv the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, free of tax. Molasses is an excel- 
lent material for this purpose and, in addition to this, is the cheapest material 
32 



482 . SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

which can be used. The obvious inference is that this material should be 
used exclusively for the production of industrial alcohol or for some other 
technical uses and no longer be prepared for human food. The production 
of straight, pure sirups from maple sap and the sap of the sugar cane and 
of sorghum and, in certain conditions, from sugar, can be easily secured in 
quantities sufficient to supply the demand not only for the consumption of 
pure sirups but also for supplying the materials which when mixed with 
pure glucose produce the mixed sirups of commerce. Thus inedible molasses 
would be eliminated from human food and mixed sirups be rendered unob- 
jectionable articles of diet. 

CONFECTIONERY. 

The term confectionery is applied to a wide range of products which may 
in general be described as preparations of saccharine substances with various 
colors and flavors. A common appellation used in connection with con- 
fectionery and one which describes perhaps the major part of the product 
is the term "candy." 

Material Used in the Preparation of Confectionery. — The saccharine 
materials which are employed in the preparation of confectionery are sugars 
of various kinds, namely, maple, cane, and beet sugar together with glucose, 
dextrose, and invert sugar. Starch, which is not a saccharine substance, is 
sometimes used as a filler in some forms of confectionery. The colors used 
are either those of a vegetable character, such as saffron and annatto, or those 
derived from animal substances, such as cochineal, or in many cases that large 
class of bodies derived from coal tar and generally known under the name of 
anilin dyes. The flavors employed are either natural flavors, such as those 
derived from nuts and fruits, or their preparations, extracts, such as the extract 
of vanilla, and synthetic preparations, including a very large number of artificial 
flavoring materials resembling to a greater or less degree the natural flavor 
of fruits, nuts, or flowers. Chocolate is one of the most common and one of 
the most highly appreciated flavoring reagents employed, being largely mixed 
with sugar before using. Not to be included in the permissible materials in 
the manufacture of confectionery are any powdered mineral substances or 
mineral substances of any kind (except such as are incident to the manufac- 
ture of the product as the natural constituents of the raw material), poison- 
ous or harmful colors or flavors, and fermented, vinous, and distilled liquors 
and drugs of all kinds. 

Under adulterations the question of what is harmful or hurtful in such 
material will be more fully discussed. 

Method of Manufacture. — Each manufacturer has his own method of 
mixing, flavoring, and coloring his products and these are mostly trade secrets. 
A general statement, however, may be made regarding the method of pro- 



ADULTERATION OF CONFECTIONS. 483 

cedure. The saccharine substances are usually dissolved in water and 
brought to the proper consistency by heating. The colors and flavors are 
added during such part of the process as is most favorable to their incorpora- 
tion and retention. The mass, when of the proper consistence, is molded into 
the various forms in which candies are found in commerce and in many 
cases polished in revolving drums of copper or other polishing device. It 
would be useless to undertake, even if they were known, to describe the 
manifold methods employed to secure the fancy and high-class confections 
which are found upon the market. 

Crystallized Fruits and Flowers. — When fruits and flowers are treated 
with sugar sirup which is subsequently allowed to crystallize there are pro- 
duced what is known as candied or crystallized flowers or fruit. These 
substances in this case become confections and should be judged by the same 
standards as the straight candy. 

Food Value of Candy. — The food value of confectionery or candy is not 
as a rule considered, since it is eaten more for its flavor and general palatabil- 
ity and attracti\-eness than for its nutritive properties. Nevertheless, the food 
value of candy is often very high and is measured chiefly by the sugars it 
contains. 

Adulteration of Confections. — The question of adulteration of confec- 
tionery is one which is somewhat difficult to discuss, since in the definition of 
confectionery and candies the incorporation of added harmless colors and fla- 
vors is regarded as a legitimate process. It is evident that because a confection 
is colored or flavored there is no reason for the statement that it is adulterated. 
Confections not being a natural product their coloring and flavoring cannot 
be regarded as deceptive since neither process can be used in any sense to 
deceive the purchaser. It follows, therefore, that any kind of a harmless 
coloring or flavoring material will be a legitimate addition to confectionery. 
The question, however, of what is harmful or harmless is one difiicult to 
decide. The manufacturer of coloring and flavoring materials and the 
manufacturer of confectionery are always quite ready to certify that the 
colors and flavors used are harmless to health. On the other hand the phys- 
iological chemist, who stands apart from the commercial point of view, may 
be led with difficulty to adopt the same conclusions. It is evident there are 
some colors, especially those of a vegetable character, which must be regarded 
as harmless. Nearly all vegetables contain natural coloring materials, either 
chlorophyll or derivatives therefrom, which are, without doubt, quite harmless. 
The addition of coloring matter of a vegetable character to confectionery 
is not regarded as in any way a harmful or deleterious ingredient to the product. 
The same may be said of animal coloring matter, since there are also natural 
constituents of animal substances used such as cochineal, which, as is well 
"known, is derived from an insect, and hence the addition of such a substance 



484 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

to a food product may be regarded in the present light of our knowledge as 
harmless. There are also synthetical preparations which from a chemical 
point of view, and in so far as known from the physical point of view, are 
closely identified with vegetable substances. These preparations may, a 
priori, be regarded as substances not injurious to health. On the other hand 
almost the whole range of mineral colors which formerly were so much used 
in tinctorial art, namely, the oxids and salts of metals such as copper, chromium, 
lead, arsenic, etc., are regarded by practically all authorities as injurious 
substances and not suitable for introduction into food products. There is 
left then for consideration in this respect that vast body of coloring matters 
derived from coal tar and known in general as anilin dyes, whether directly 
made from anilin or not. On the question of wholesomeness of these bodies 
there is much division of opinion. Of the many which are known, however, 
only a few are regarded as harmless. Perhaps thirty different dyes would cover 
the whole number which have been pronounced harmless by expert observers. 
The experts, however, who have rendered decisions in this matter do not 
agree as to the harmlessness of the list just mentioned. Some of them include 
some portions of the list and exclude others from their commendation. It 
so happens, therefore, that only a few so-called anilin dyes have really 
escaped condemnation at the hands of some of the experts. The general 
character of anilin dyes and the well known poisonous property of the radical 
from which they are derived leads to the supposition that it would be very 
unsafe in any case to make an absolute statement in favor of any of them. 
These bodies, as a rule, undergo no change in the metabolic processes. They 
pass in and through the cellular tissues of the body and are excreted mostly 
in the urine and hence place a burden upon the excretory cells which, although 
light, is unnecessary. The possibility, too, might be taken into consideration 
of a direct toxic effect which they may exert although in a minute degree 
upon the cell structures through which they pass. It is certain that these 
bodies can exert no beneficial effect upon the structure of the cells and it is 
hardly likely, in the doctrine of probabilities, that they should be neutral. 
It is advisable, therefore, to suggest to the manvifacturer of confectionery 
as well as of the other food products, but of confections in particular, the 
wisdom of seeking some method of producing attractive colors in their products 
among sources which are open to no suspicion. It might be that this would 
be attended with some expense and that the dyes which are unobjectionable 
may be more costly. This, however, should be a matter of very small con- 
sideration to the manufacturer who has the welfare of the public at heart. 
The price of confectionery, as is well known, is out of proportion to the prices 
of the raw materials of which it is made. The quantity of coloring matter 
which confections contain is acknowledged to be minute so that whether the 
colors cost a dollar or five dollars a pound makes little difference in the actual ■ 



ADULTERATIOX OF CONFECTIONS. 485 

cost of the product and the highest priced colors would not diminish the 
percentage of profit to any noticeable degree. 

Aside from the use of harmful colors and flavors, which are always to be 
regarded as adulterants, there are many other practices in connection with 
the manufacture of confections that may be classed as objectionable. ]\Iost 
of these have, however, been forbidden by law in the states and in other coun- 
tries and are now forbidden by our national law. The addition of ground 
mineral matter was long known as one of the principal adulterations of con- 
fectionery. This, in my opinion, is no longer practiced in the United States. 
The substances used were commonly known as terra alba, that is, ground 
talc, powdered silicates, powdered chalk, or ground marble — in fact any 
white powdered mineral substance. The object of this adulteration is mani- 
festly to increase the weight. 

Poisonous Mineral Colors. — In the early days of the manufacturing of 
confectionery salts of lead and compounds of chromium, as well as compounds 
of other metals such as copper, etc., were employed for coloring purposes. 
The use of these bodies is now extremely rare, however, if it is ever 
practiced, and hence may be regarded as a practice of the past. 

Glucose Containing Harmful Substances. — The bleaching of glucose by 
sulfurous acid naturally leads to the introduction into candies of this sub- 
stance. It is present in minute quantities, however, and if the glucose is 
carefully made, I may add, in negligible quantities. The danger of over- 
sulfuring must not be forgotten and it is difficult to draw a line of demarka- 
tion between what may be regarded as negligible and injurious quantities. 
The abandonment, therefore, of the use of sulfur must be regarded as the 
only safe way of protecting the consumer against an adulteration of this kind. 
The use of poisonous flavoring is perhaps more extensive than is generally 
recognized, especially of that flavor which is supposed to be characteristic 
of the kernel of the peach, namely, benzaldehyde or its derivatives. There 
is also a small amount of hydrocyanic acid in the kernels of the peach, 
almond, etc. This is a very deadly substance and no artificial preparation 
of it should ever be used. If there be any flavor of this kind in a confection 
it should be derived solely from the almond or similar nuts which contain 
only minute traces. While nature, as is well known, places poisonous sub- 
stances in many food products, they have been so skilfully combined as to 
render their effect the least harmful. When man produces a similar poison- 
ous article artificially and adds it to a food, the poisonous effect thereof is 
undoubtedly increased. Hence the use of artificial harmful flavors of any 
kind in a food product, especially confectionery, is utterly reprehensible and 
unpardonable. 

Alcohol. — Alcohol has been placed in different forms in confectionery, some- 
times enclosed as drops within the saccharine substance. This must be re- 



486 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

garded as an adulteration of a very reprehensible character, since these product* 
are eaten so much by children and the danger of injury from the alcohol and the 
danger of forming a habit from eating it in this way is extremely great. This 
form of adulteration is specifically forbidden by the national law. In view of the 
fact that children and young persons of both sexes, and especially girls, eat con- 
fectionery so largely it is incumbent upon every manufacturer to see that no 
raw material is employed in his processes and no flavoring or coloring or other 
added ingredient used which is in any way under suspicion as being a harm- 
ful or deleterious substance. Manufacturers should remember that a mere 
certificate of purity from the person making these substances is generally of little 
value. Even if the statements made in such certificates are true they will 
always be under suspicion, because it would be supposed that they were 
made for the purpose of furthering trade rather than for the protection of 
the consumer. In the case of two experts of like honesty and like industry, 
one employed for the purpose of giving a certificate to the article of food and 
one whose researches are entirely independent of any commercial relations, 
the public will generally give the decision of the latter a greater weight. In- 
spection officers under state and national food and drug acts should give 
especial attention to the subject of confectionery as an article of diet almost 
universally employed and consumed b}- a class of the community most sus- 
ceptible to injury. 

HONEY. 

Honey is defined as the nectar of flowers, gathered and stored by the honey 
bee (Apis melifica). While this is a very good definition there is often found 
in honey saccharine exudations of the plant other than the nectar of 
flowers. Many plants contain sugar in their saps and when an exudation 
of sap takes place and the water in the sap is evaporated a saccharine residue 
remains which is also gathered by the bee. Many trees, especially of the pine 
family, exude a sweet sap when stung by a kind of louse (aphis) and this is 
also gathered by the bees. Thus while there may be other exudations of the 
plant found in honey the fact remains that the true honey is gathered exclu- 
sively from the nectar of the flowering plant. A honey which is made by 
feeding bees sugar sirup or other artificial sugar food cannot be regarded 
as a genuine article. The feeding of bees, while a strictly legitimate practice, 
should be confined to keeping them over periods of famine or the keeping 
of them alive during the winter or at other times when they do not have access 
to the flowering plant. 

Historical. — Honey has been used by man for food from the remotest 
antiquity. In fact, in earlier times honey was the only sugar substance at 
the disposition of man. He had not yet learned the sources of great supply 
which now are at his command or if he had he was not familiar with the 



PREPARATION OF HONEY. 



487 



technical processes of preparing the commercial article. Honey is approxi- 
mately a pure saccharine substance and this, in addition to its peculiar and, 
to most people, pleasant flavor, not only gave it a vogue in the earlier times 
of necessity but has maintained it in public favor when other and cheaper 
sources of saccharine substances have been developed. In fact, at the present 
time it might be said that honey owes its value upon the market not to the 
fact that it is a saccharine bodv but that it contains flavors and aromas im- 




Fig. 83. — Swarm of Bees on Boi'gh of Tree. — [Com lesy A. I. Root Co.) 



parted to it by the flower and by the bee which render it a luxury rather than 
a necessity of life. 

Preparation of Honey. — While bees stored their honey in hollow trees 
or other suitable places in earlier times this was a doubtful source of supply. 
The bee tree is still an object of interest in every neighborhood. Many wild 
animals, especially bears, are very fond of honey and these animals were 
the robbers of the hone}- l)ee in the days when wild beasts roamed the for- 



488 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

ests. Since the removal of the forests to such a large extent in the interest 
of agriculture the bee tree is becoming a curiosity rather than a matter of 
common occurrence. Wild swarms of bees, therefore, at the present time, 
find other places for building their hives than the hollows of trees. They 
are likely to light upon almost any point that affords them a temporary sup- 
port and attempt, at least, to form a colony. Unless, however, they have 
some natural protection such as that of a hollow tree, these attempts are 
usually unsuccessful. In Fig. 83 is shown a swarm of bees, which, gathering 
on the bough of a tree, have bent it to the ground. 




Fig. 84.— Artificial Bee Hivks under Shade of Grape Vij^K.— iCourffsy o/ A. I. Root Co.) 



Artificial Hives. — The artificial hive has now become an inseparable 
incident in bee culture. The various forms of hives and their relative merits 
cannot be discussed in this manual. There are many special works on bee 
culture in which all these mechanical appliances, which are so favorable 
to the storing of large quantities of honey, are described. The most approved 
form is that which permits the depositing of the combs in small boxes which 
when filled usually weigh about one pound and which can be easily removed 
from the comb and are in a condition to send to market. The proper method 
of locating bee hives is indicated in Fig. 84. 

The art of bee keeping is not easily acquired and it requires a natural 



COMB HONEY. 



489 



aptitude as well as long study and research to become an expert bee keeper. 
Experts differ in their opinion respecting the relative value of hives, and rival 
manufacturers also do much in the way of advertising one or another of 
these contrivances. All of them that have merits are such as protect the bee, 
during the months when it is idle, from starvation and disease and afford it 
every possible facility for storing its treasures during the season of activity. 

Distribution of the Honey-producing Industry. — Every part of the 
United States is suitable in some respects for the production of honey. Natur- 
ally the extreme northern portion, where the winters are very severe, are less 
favorable than the southern portion for two reasons, first, the difficulty of 




Fig. 85.— a Frame Containing 24 Boxes of Honey. — (Courtesy A. I. Root Co.) 





r 




-If- 




f ; 
1! 




' 


■i 










M 



keeping the bees over the winter is greater in the North, and, second, the 
season of activity is much shorter. On the other hand the honey which is 
gathered from the northern flowers is, as a rule, more highly prized than that 
gathered from the more southern regions. California, perhaps, is the greatest 
honey-producing state in the Union, though portions of New Hampshire, 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and many other states have developed great industries. 
It is very common also for the farmer to have a number of bee hives, particu- 
larly for storing honey for domestic consumption, so that the making of honey 
is almost as common on the farm as the making of butter. 

Comb Honey. — The honey which is produced in the hives and removed 
without extracting it from the comb is known as " comb honey. " As indicated 



49° 



SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY, 



above, at the present time large amounts of this product are made by the 
filling of small boxes of a size intended for the market. This is, by far, the 
most convenient method of handling the product. A frame show^ing 24 boxes 
of comb honey as withdrawn from the hive is illustrated in Fig. 85. It has 
also the additional merit of a practical guarantee of the product. In Fig. 86 
is seen a box of honey in which the capping is incomplete. Many mechanical 
attempts have been made to imitate the genuine comb and in many respects a 
certain degree of success has been attained. In fact nearly all of the com- 
mercial comb honey of the present day is made in combs built upon an arti- 
ficial base in which the cells of the comb are started and sometimes built to a 
considerable depth. The bee is then only required to fill out the remaining 
portion of the cell and, after filling it with honey, to cover it over. Thus 




Fig. 86. — Showinc, Box of Honey Partially Capped. — (Conrtesy A. I. Root Co.) 



the labor of the bee is greatly diminished in respect of comb building and its 
energies preserved for a greater production of honey. It must be admitted 
that honey preserved in the comb has a delicacy and daintiness which does 
not attach to that which has been separated and sold in a liquid form. The 
comb honey, therefore, commands a fancy price. 

Extracted Honey. — Where honey is to be shipped to any great distance 
it is found difiicult, if not impossible, to transport it in the comb, since the 
jarring and exposure incident to transit break the delicate cells and allow 
the honey to escape. For commercial purposes, therefore, especially when 
honey is to be shipped to distant points, it is separated from the comb at 



WATER. 



491 



the place of manufacture. The usual method of separation is by centrifugal 
force. The caps of the cells being removed, the boxes which contain them 
are placed in a centrifugal machine and the honey forced out by centrifugal 
action. The boxes are then returned to the hives where they are refilled by 
the bees. By this process extracted honey can be made in great quantities 
and for a much lower price than the same quantity of honey still held in the 
combs. The principal objection to extracted honey is due to the fact that 
it has been subjected to such extensive adulterations as will be mentioned 
further on. There can be no valid objection made to the character of ex- 
tracted honey when it has been prepared under competent direction and 
with the skill and care which are required by the professional honey makers. 

Strained Honey. — Strained honey is a variety of extracted honey which 
is allowed to flow by gravit}- or by gentle pressure from the broken or frag- 
mentary combs. In such cases, naturally, the cell or honey comb is destroyed. 
The residual comb is sent to market as beeswax. 

Properties of Honey. — Honey at ordinary temperature is a viscous liquid 
of a tint varying from almost colorless to almost black, according to the char- 
acter of the flowers and the season in which it is gathered and the length 
of time of storage. It contains from 15 to 25 percent of water and usually 
has a small quantity of foreign substances, incident to its manufacture, such 
as particles of dust, pollen, fragments of bees, fragments of comb, etc. Honey, 
therefore, is a somewhat concentrated solution of sugars and these sugars are 
the natural products of the flowers of plants, modified to some extent, by 
passing through the organism of the bee. In passage through the bee the 
honey is impregnated with a small quantity of an acid, named from the ant, 
formic acid. It also sufters other changes which are very strongly marked 
in flavor and aroma but which cannot be very readily traced chemicallv. 

Polarization. — Pure honey, that is, honey gathered solely from the sac- 
charine exudations of flowers, at the ordinary temperature of the laboratory, 
namely, from 65 to 85 degrees F., has the faculty of turnmg a plane of polar- 
ized light to the left, which is just the opposite of the optical properties of 
cane sugar. Whenever a honey shows a right-handed polarization it is a 
cause for suspicion respecting its purit}-. A honey of this kind has either 
been made by feeding the bees a sugar sirup or by the gathering, on the part 
of the bees, of the saccharine exudation, before alluded to, known as honey 
dew. It is perfectly true that bees may have gathered in exceptional cases 
exudations of plants which will show a right-handed polarization, but this 
occurs so infrequently as to render it advisable to regard such a honey as ab- 
normal in quality. The polariscope, therefore, becomes an almost indis- 
pensable implement in a study of the purity of honey. 

Water. — As has already been stated, the usual content of water in honey 



492 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

is from 15 to 25 percent. It very rarely falls below 15 percent and also 
very rarely goes above 20 percent. In extremely dry periods it is evident 
that the content of water becomes less, while in times of rain or at the first 
advent of the flowers the content of water will be greater. The bee naturally 
modifies to some extent the content of water in order that the organism may 
dispose of the product. If the content of water is too small the bee handles 
the product with difficulty and if the content of water is too large difficulty 
in gathering and storing the honey on account of the excessive fluidity is 
experienced. As before intimated, the color of the honey depends largely 
upon the flower from which it is made. White clover gives a honey almost 
water -white and among all the honey -producing flowers is perhaps regarded 
the most highly. On the other hand a plant like the golden rod, which flowers 
later in the summer, produces honey of a deep yellow and sometimes almost 
a black tint. The color of honey, therefore, indicates not only the season of 
the year at which it is stored, becoming darker as the autumn advances, but 
also the nature of the flower from which it is produced. 

Ash. — The content of mineral matter in honey is extremely small and 
perhaps is largely due to the mechanical entanglement of dust in the nectar 
rather than the exudation of actual mineral matter itself from the flower. 
In some cases the amount of mineral matter is so small as to become a mere 
trace while in other cases it has been found as high as .3 of one percent. 
A high content of ash denotes the exposure of the nectar previous to gathering 
to an infection of dust or to some other abnormal condition. A high ash 
content, therefore, always indicates that further study should be made respect- 
ing the purity of the product. 

Sucrose. — The amount of sugar (cane sugar) which is found in honey is 
in normal conditions not very large, but in exceptional cases the sugar content, 
that is, the sucrose content, may reach as high as 8 or 10 percent. At such 
times the honey has only a slightly left-handed polarization or may become 
right-handed. Whenever the content of sucrose in honey reaches as high 
as 8 percent there is ground for suspicion that the bees have been fed on 
sugar sirup, or that some other form of adulteration has been practiced. 

Dextrose and Levulose.— The two principal saccharine components 
of honey are the sugars known as dextrose and levulose, in other words, 
taken together, inverted sugar, that is, sugar made by the inversion of cane 
sugar or sucrose. In the nectar of flowers these two sugars exist almost in 
the proportion which would be expected if they had been formed from su- 
crose or ordinary sugar by a simple chemical process. Sometimes one of 
these sugars and sometimes the other may be in slight excess. The names 
of these two sugars indicate their active properties. Dextrose is a right- 
handed sugar, that is, it turns the plane of polarization to the right. In this 
respect it resembles sucrose or ordinary cane sugar, although it is not so strongly 



ADULTERATION OF HONEY. 493 

right-handed. Levulose, as the name implies, is a sugar which turns the 
plane of polarization to the left. The temperature of the solution has a 
very marked influence upon this active property, — the lower the temperature 
the greater the left-handed rotation. A honey which has a strong left-handed 
polarization, therefore, at ordinary temperature is one in which the levulose 
is present in full proportion or very slight excess. The other constituents 
of honey, namely, the pollen which is mechanically entangled therein, the 
dust or dirt which is mechanically attached thereto, the formic acid imparted 
thereto by the bee, and the other ingredients, are extremely minute in quantity 
and are not, as a rule, expressed as percentage constituents. In fact the 
most of them are merely accidental constituents. 

Adulteration of Honey. — Perhaps there is no common food product, 
with the possible exception of condimental substances such as pepper and 
spices, that has been subjected to such extensive and general adulterations 
as honey. 

The high price of honey, its position as a luxury as well as a food product, 
and its attractive flavor and aroma have all combined to make it a favorite 
product for adulteration. In addition to this the invention in the last third 
of a centurv of an artificial product resembling honey very closely in its physical 
properties and being itself a saccharine body, namely glucose, has put into 
the hands of the adulterator an ideal substitute for the natural product. There 
is only one reason why the adulteration of honey wnth glucose has not been 
more extensive than it is, namely, the ease with which the chemist can detect 
it. The chemical properties of glucose are very distinct from those of honey 
itself. In spite of this fact, however, the adulteration of honey has been most 
extensively exploited and until the methods of detecting it were developed it 
was almost universally practiced. Glucose is a water-white saccharine semi- 
viscous mass made by the hydrolysis of starch with an acid and therefore 
forms the body upon which the adulterated article can be built. It has a 
low saccharine value and cannot be used alone but must necessarily be mingled 
with the honey. The amount of real honey used is, as a rule, a minimum 
to give the flavor and taste of the genuine article to the admixture. It is 
believed at the present time that this method of adulterating honey is very 
much less practiced than in former years and this is due, as has been said, 
to the ease with which it can be detected and also, it may be added, to the 
increased rigidity of national, state, and municipal inspection, rendering it 
difficult to place an adulterated article such as this upon the market without 
detection. Incalculable harm has been done to the honey trade of the country 
by the practice of this style of adulteration. Only liquid honey, that is sepa- 
rated or strained, can be easily adulterated with glucose. Often, however, 
an attempt has been made to still further deceive the customer by placing 
a portion of the genuine comb honey in a jar and then filling it with the adul- 



494 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

terated mixture, giving the appearance of the genuine article to a certain extent 
to the whole. 

Adulteration with Inverted Sugar. — A much more subtle form of adul- 
teration, and therefore one much more difficult to detect, is the adulteration 
of honey with a sirup made from inverted sugar, that is, the product obtained 
from cane sugar by the action of a dilute acid. This chemical process, as 
has already been indicated, converts the cane sugar into a mixture of dextrose 
and levulose. These sugars are identical, for chemical purposes, with the 
natural dextrose and levulose of honey. The chemist, therefore, has a much 
more difficult task to perform when he attempts to diagnose the presence 
of artificial dextrose and levulose in a mixture of the natural product. There 
are, however, certain qualities of ash, as well as other chemical constituents, 
which guide him in his work. While his conclusions do not have that definite- 
ness which attaches to the examination of a honey adulterated with glucose 
they are sufficiently distinctive in most cases to determine whether or not a 
sophistication has been practiced. 

Adulteration with Cane Sugar. — A very simple form of adulteration and 
one which cannot be practiced to any extent without being easily detected 
is the admixture of a sirup of pure cane sugar to honey. As long as the 
quantity added is not sufficient to change the optical properties, so that the 
mixture becomes right-handed in its rotation, the admixture of a small quantity 
of cane sugar sirup might escape the detection of the chemist. Inasmuch, 
however, as cane sugar exists only in small quantities in honey the regular and 
persistent occurrence of much cane sugar in a honey would be a just cause for 
suspicion, although its occasional occurrence might be due to purely natural 
causes. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Mince Meat. — Under the term "mince meat" is included a large variety 
of mixtures used chiefly for pie making and composed of meats, fruits, evapo- 
rated fruits, spices, and sometimes alcohol in some of its forms. It is not 
possible to describe any particular combination which would be entitled 
to bear the name alone, since each housewife and each manufacturer follows 
a method of her and his own. A general description, however, may be given 
of the manufactured article which, unfortunately, has largely displaced the 
mince meat of domestic manufacture. 

Judged by the name alone, meat of some kind would be an important 
constituent of this substance. This, however, is not the case. Very few 
of the mince meats contain more than lo percent of meat, a large number 
contain less and quite a large number contain none at all. Suet and tallow 
are sometimes employed as a substitute for meat, which apparently satisfies 
the conscience of the manufacturer even if it does not suit the palate of the 



MINCE MEAT. 



495 



consumer. Evaporated fruits, such as raisins, etc., form important constitu- 
ents of the mixture and also fresh fruits, in domestic manufacture, are very 
often used. Spices of various kinds are also employed and the mixture 
is sometimes flavored with brandy or some alcoholic beverage. 

Pressed Mince Meat. — The mixture which is above described may be dried 
and pressed, or pressed without drying, into a hard iirm cake which renders 
it more suitable for transportation and improves its keeping qualities. There 
is perhaps little difference between the unpressed and the pressed mince 
meat except in the matter of a binder. The binder consists usually of starch 
or flour, which serves not only to give additional weight to the mixture but 
also to hold the pa^rticles together. Starch or flour is sometimes used in un- 
pressed mince meat also. There is another advantage in using starch or flour, 
namely, that these bodies absorb large quantities of moisture and thus increase 
the weight of the mixture. Mince meat cannot be recommended on sanitary 
grounds, since the method of manufacture is not always known and the materials 
from which it is made are not always selected with the sole view to the excel- 
lence of the raw materials and the health of the consumer. The meat when 
used often represents waste material from the table or factory and the fruits 
are not necessarily those which look best but probably are those usually of 
the worst appearance and the combinations are made with a view of meeting 
the ordinary demands of the market rather than of catering to the tenets of 
sanitation. 

It is not the intention of this manual to discourage any kind of legitimate 
manufacturing industry, but, in view of the general character of substances 
of this kind, if they are to be used at all, it seems advisable that they should 
be made in the home, of material selected by the housewife and in a manner 
which requires no special treatment for its preservation, rather than to be 
purchased at random in the open market, made of materials of unknown 
origin put together by an unknown process. 

Adidteralion of Mince Meat. — Assuming that the materials which have 
been selected are wholesome, sanitary, and of fine quality, the principal adul- 
terations to which mince meat is subjected are the addition of chemical pre- 
servatives and artificial colors. Inasmuch as mince meat is not expected 
to be of any very definite color the use of artificial colors is not common. On 
the other hand when mince meat is made in large quantities, transported 
long distances, and sometimes kept for a long while on the shelves of the gro- 
cery, the subject of preservation becomes a matter of serious importance. It 
is naturally inconvenient to preserve a mixture of this kind by sterilization, 
though this has been accomplished. The method of drying and pressing 
has already been described. This, of course, detracts somewhat from the physi- 
cal appearance of the product. The common method is the addition of a 
chemical preservative. At the present time I believe that benzoate of soda 



496 SUGAR, SIRUP, CONFECTIONERY, AND HONEY. 

is the one very commonly used, and it will probably continue to be so used, 
by most manufacturers until national and state laws or an enlightened public 
opinion eliminate it from food products. 

Pie Fillers. — Nearly allied to mince meat in its character is a large class 
of substances known as pie fillers. Mince meat itself, as may be seen from 
the description which has been given of it, is nothing but a pie filler of a 
particular kind. Unfortunately the demand of the domestic cuisine is for 
substances prepared, or partially prepared, for immediate consumption. In 
this way the demand for predigested and precooked food has become a very 
general one and the pie filler is a legitimate effort on the part of the manu- 
facturers to meet this growing demand. It is far easier for domestic purposes 
to make a pie of an already prepared material than to go to the trouble of 
constructing the material in the kitchen. A housewife loses sight of the 
fact that the fresh domestic pie is probably the only one which, for sanitary 
and other reasons, should be admitted to the table. As the pie fillers are as 
varied in character as the different kinds of pies from which they are made, 
no definite standard can be prescribed for them. Fruits are, naturally, the 
predominating constituent in these fillers and the condiments and spices 
used are certainly unobjectionable. If it be possible to prepare spiced fruits 
and keep them until used for pies there would seem to be no objection to the 
manufacture, long before using, of these substance in large quantities. The 
difficulty, however, of preserving the freshness and aroma of a fruit or other 
substance used for pie making is so evident as to need no particular emphasis. 

Adulteration of Pie Fillers.— The common adulterations in pie fillers are 
artificial colors, when they are designed to represent fruit of a special char- 
acter, and preservatives. The same remarks which were made respecting 
these bodies in mince meat apply with equal force to all kinds of pie fillers. 
Foods of this kind are evidently only properly made on the premises where 
they are consumed immediately after manufacture. The addition of artificial 
colors and preservatives to such substances, while apparently necessary in the 
present condition of trade, is wholly objectionable from every other point 
of view, and in such cases trade conditions should properly give way to the 
demands of public and private sanitation and hygiene. 

In the interest of both hygiene and palatability "pie filling" should be made 
by the pie baker. It is not possible in an article like this to secure that 
perfection of cleanliness and delicacy of flavor which should be characteristic, 
when making large quantities of "filling" and transporting it over long 
distances in barrels or tubs. Make the pie filling and the pies at home. 



PART X. 
INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. 



Introduction. — One of the most important subjects in connection with 
the food supply is that of foods offered for the use of infants and invaHds. 
In so far as the chemical composition, nutritive properties, and palatability 
are concerned, there is nothing which may be said in general concerning 
infants' and invalids' foods which may not be said with equal appropriateness 
of foods of all kinds. It is often necessary, however, in the case of infants and 
invalids, to modify certain natural foods in such a manner as to adapt them to 
the peculiar conditions present. It is impossible in many cases to draw the 
line between what may be considered an infant's food and what an invalid's 
food. Milk, for instance, which is the universal food of infants, is also often 
prescribed exclusively for in\alids of adult age or for well-grown children. 
In the disturbances of digestion the powers of the digestive organs are so 
changed or depleted as to reduce the grown person practically to the condition 
of an infant in so far as nutrition is concerned. On the other hand, every one 
of the foods which is specifically prescribed for infants may also be used by 
grown persons, under certain conditions. 

It is easv, however, to distinguish, as a class, infants' foods from the foods of 
invalids, although the two may overlap at some points. It may be, broadly 
stated that nothing is an infant's food which is not milk, or does not have the 
chemical composition, the nutritive \'alue, and general properties of milk. In 
other words, milk is the natural food of the infant, and every prepared infants' 
food must have its value determined principally by its approximation to the 
composition of the natural article. On the other hand, an invalid's food may 
cover the whole range of nutriti\'e materials. It would be useless, therefore, 
to attempt, in a preliminary paragraph, to distinguish sharply between these 
two classes of foods. It will ])e sufficient, in the consideration of these foods, 
and in the studv of their composition and nutritive properties, to confine the 
discussion of infants' food principally to milk and its substitutes, and to 
include other foods recommended for invalids in the section on Invalids' Foods 
(p. 549). This is a broad line of demarkation which will avoid confusion. 
To a certain extent it will be necessary in the present discussion to consider 
33 497 



498 infants' and invalids' foods. 

further some of the foods which have been generally discussed in the pre- 
ceding parts of this manual. This is particularly true of milk, and of certain 
meat preparations. 

INFANTS' FOODS. 

GENERAL NUTRITION CONSIDERATIONS. 

Good Nutrition. — A child is well nourished when it continues to grow 
normally; is free or nearly free from colic and other disorders of the intestinal 
tract; sleeps well, and is not fretful, but appears to be contented and to enjoy 
hfe. The ideal food for an infant is the milk of a healthy mother. In cases 
where this is not available artificial feeding must be practiced. These sub- 
stitutes for mother's milk are considered in the following paragraphs. 
Great care should be taken not to feed infants in such a manner as to make 
them too fat. The infant does not need much surplus tissue. 

A word of caution should be given in this respect, as many mothers think if 
the baby is fat and chubby that is all that is necessary. While, of course, 
plumpness indicates to a certain extent the vigor of digestive operations, 
excessive plumpness should be avoided. The child that makes a healthy 
but not too rapid grow-th, without becoming overfat at any period, is in a 
better condition than the one that is too fat. The pictures of chubby cherubs 
that often accompany advertisements of proprietary or artificial infants' 
foods may be very attractive, but this is not the kind of feeding that best fits 
the real baby for a vigorous and useful hfe. A healthy child should increase 
in weight during normal growth about one-fourth of a pound a week for the 
first six months of its life. A child, therefore, which gains a pound in weight 
in a month may be regarded as being in a very satisfactory condition in so far 
as nutrition and growth are concerned. 

Feeding of Immature Infants. — The selection of proper food for an infant 
depends largely upon its health, age, and general vigor. There are certain 
conditions in which foods which ordinarily nourish and support the health 
of the child are to be avoided. Many infants at birth have a remarkably low 
weight, and it is considered by physicians that a baby weighing less that 4^ 
pounds is immature. The smallness of the child renders its nutrition extremely 
difficult, and even mother's milk in such cases may prove unsuitable for its 
nourishment. An infant of this kind must have fat, proteid, carbohydrate, 
salts, and w^ater in such quantity and relative proportions as will meet the 
possibilities of its digestion. In each case the competent physician alone can 
determine the quantity and composition of food which is best suited for the 
purpose. 

The subject of the feeding of such immature-infants is well set forth by Dr. 
Spalding in the " Journal of the American Medical Association" for September 



QUALITY AND FREQUENCY OF FEEDING. 499 

25, 1909, page 998. In order to avoid a deficiency or excess of food, attempts 
have been made to base the quantity upon the weight of the infant or its heat 
requirements; that is, the actual heat value of the food, or caloric value, as it 
is sometimes called, is made to have a certain relation to the weight of the child. 
In these cases it is necessary to modify the milk in a very marked manner in 
order to secure the proper resuUs. The original milk must be perfectly pure 
and from tuberculin-free cattle, and should have a bacterial count of less than 
10,000 per cubic centimeter. If additional carbohydrates are used, milk 
sugar or maltose is recommended. Often certain bodies, especially the chlorid 
of sodium and limewater, are added to improve the digestion. 

If sweet milk does not meet the requirements, sour milk or buttermilk 
properly modified may be used. In such instances a modified milk in 
which the ratio of fat to protein is not more than 2 : i is found to be 
most effective. The number of calories in the food for these very weak in- 
fants may not be more than 100 a kilo of body-weight, and even this, 
proportion can be reduced after the child grows older. In some instances, 
however, it is necessary to have a food with a much higher food value, i. e., 
as much as 250 calories per kilo. The great point is to watch each case to 
see how the modified milk is digested. If the fat can be digested, more fat 
is added; or if the infant digests protein easily, a larger percentage of protein 
is added, while the milk sugar is usually kept constant. 

Quality and Frequency of Feeding. — There can be no fixed rule for the 
quantity of milk which should be given to an infant. The state of health, 
the size of the infant, and the general environment are all important factors in 
this problem. It is almost impossible to establish any definite rule in regard 
to an infant during the first month of its fife. From the fourth to the sixth 
week an ordinary child will consume from 600 to 1000 grams of milk dailw 
After the fourth month the consumption will run from 1000 to 1200 grams. 
These amounts are based upon experiments conducted on a large number of 
infants and should seldom be exceeded. 

The young infant especially must be protected against too large an in- 
gestion of food. A young baby is very apt to reject by vomiting any excess 
of milk which he has swallowed, and this vomiting is a very natural process 
and is not a symptom of disease. The slower the infant takes its food, the 
more likely he is to escape the disadvantages of any excess. \ 

.The number of times the child should be fed is also a variable one. During 
the first month of life if an infant is fed everv two hours it is quite sufficient ; 
after that the feedings may vary from six to eight times dailv, up to the fourth 
month. After the fourth month six feedings are usuallv sufficient, and some- 
times a smaller number. The quantity of milk taken at each feeding varies, of 
course, with the number of feedings, and is usually from 50 to 200 grams. 

It is important that the child be frequently weighed, as the quantity of 



500 



infants' and invalids' foods. 



food that it needs bears a certain relation to its weight and may thus be 
approximately determined. Gaged upon the calorific value of the food, a 
child weighing 5 kilograms requires a quantity of milk representing 500 
calories, or five-sevenths of a liter, or in round numbers, 700 c.c. If arti- 
ficial food is used, assuming that it is as good as mother's milk, a sufficient 
quantity of it should be employed to supply that amount of heat. 

Percentage Feeding of Infants. — A great deal of attention has been 
given in the last few years to what is known as the percentage feeding of 
infants. It may be said in regard to this matter that there are two distinct and 
somewhat different theories in vogue. In the United States the so-called 
percentage method of feeding is generally upheld by the more advanced phy- 
sicians, while in Germany the system which is known as the caloric is more 
generally held. Naturally, both systems have their good points, and neither 
by itself may be said to be complete. 

It is not difficult, as a rule, if the percentage composition of the food, including 
the quantity of fat, is known, to calculate its caloric value. The trouble, how- 
ever, lies in determining exactly the percentage relations of different components 
of the same kind of food. The absolute heat value of the food may be said to 
best subserve the wants Of the infant when it amounts to from 100 to 120 calo- 
ries per kilogram of body-weight. As the infant grows larger, this amount may 
be well reduced, as, for instance, it might fall to 80 calories per kilogram at 
the end of the first year. It is advisable, therefore, not only to have the calo- 
rific value of the food determined per kilogram of weight, but also to know 
the percentages of fat, sugar, and protein in the food. Some experts claim 
that fat is not assimilated well by the young infant, and that its presence is 
often the cause of acute and chronic indigestion. If this be true, it is impor- 
tant that the physician who wishes to protect his patient from an undue amount 
of fat should know the quantity present. 

One of the chief dif^culties, of course, in properly modifying the percentage 
composition of milk is the fact that the milk itself varies so greatly, especially 
in its content of fat. For instance, the milk from a Jersey cow may contain 
two or even three times as much fat as that from a cow of the Holstein breed. 
Hence, any hard and fast rules for modifving milk so as to secure a definite 
percentage composition are of little value. Fortunately, the milk varies much 
more as to its content of fat than in regard to any other constituent. Hence, 
it may be practicable to apf)ly stereotyped rules for modifying the content of 
sugar and protein, but not the fat. Fortunately, the determination of the fat 
is one of the easiest of all the operations in milk analysis and can be very 
successfully made by one who is not a chemist by means of the simple Babcock 
centrifugal apparatus, to be had of all dealers in dairy supplies. The best re- 
sults will certainly be obtained in the feeding of infants when both the calorific 
value of the food and its percentage composition are taken into consideration. 



DANGERS IN BOTTLE FEEDING. 50I 

Calorific Value of Milk. — In the feeding of infants the development 
of heat and energy is, of course, quite as important as the growth of tissue. 
For this purpose milks* rich in fat are much more important than those rich 
in carbohydrates. For instance, the amount of heat and energy furnished 
by a unit weight of fat is more than double that suppHed by the same weight 
of milk sugar. The calorific power of milk, therefore, depends more on its 
content of fat than on any other constituent. A liter of milk, approximately 
one quart, represents on an average a little over 700 calories. As a man at 
moderate work requires about 3000 calories per day, it is seen that he would 
need more than four liters of milk. In other words, the average man might 
well live and perform his ordinary activities on a gallon and a half of milk 
a day, considering heat and energy requirements only. 

Method of Computing Calorific Value. — In order to obtain the 
calorific value of food when its percentage composition is known, the percent- 
age of each element is multiplied by its respective heat value for one gram, these 
calorific values being well known. If, then, the total amount of food used in 
twenty-four hours is determined, its total calorific value is obtained by simple 
multiplication and addition. An illustration may serve best to show how this 
is accomplished. Let us assume that milk prepared, or modified, for the use 
of an infant has i percent of protein, 3 percent of fat, and 6 percent of sugar, 
and the total quantity of milk used in a day is 300 cubic centimeters. The 
calorific power of fat is expressed in round numbers for one gram by 9.3 cal- 
ories; that of sugar is 4.1 calories per gram; and t'he calorific power of protein, 
inasmuch as it is not fully oxidized, may be taken at the same value, namely, 
4. 1 small calories per gram. The total calorific \;^alue of the food is, therefore, 
given in the following calculation: 

300 X 0.03 X 0-3= 83.7 calories due to fat. 
300 X o.oi X 4.1= 12.3 calories due to protein. 
300 X 0.06 X 4.1= 73.8 calories due to sugar. 



169.8 total calories in the milk ingested. 

Where constant recourse is had to such calculations, it may be convenient 
to make a table which will give the calories at once by inspection, but this is 
only necessary in exceptional cases. 

Dangers in Bottle Feeding. — If infants are fed by bottle or in any 
artificial way, great precaution must be observed to keep the bottle and all 
parts of the apparatus free from bacterial and other infection. This is not 
by any means as easily accomplished as one might suppose. The mere wash- 
ing of the apparatus with hot water after feeding a child is not sufiicient. 
Two or three times a day all parts of the bottle should be put into water 
gradually heated, and boiled for some time, in order to be certain that no 
contamination is possible. Even where the milk is good and pure the con- 



502 infants' and invalids' foods. 

tamination of the container may be so great as to work an injury upon the 
child. All complicated methods of administering the milk should be rejected 
and the simplest one possible adopted. 

Beginning of Mixed Foods. — When the first food is given, the greatest 
care should be exercised in regard to its quality, and especially that it shall be 
a food most easily digested. Reference has already been made to milk sugar 
and malt as probably the best of the milk modifiers that can be used. At 
first the solid particles of the malt should not be employed, but only those 
portions soluble in water. Malted cereals in small quantities may be given 
later on as the stomach of the child becomes able to digest them. Fruits 
should never be given to infants at this stage, though small quantities of 
properly prepared fruit juices may not be inadmissible after the child ap- 
proaches the age of a year. The juice of wholesome meat in small quantities 
is also relished by growing children. Any foods which contain an alkaloid, 
such as coffee, tea, or chocolate, should be rigidly excluded from the diet. 
For the same reason alcohol should never be given to children even after they 
pass the age of infancy. Solid food which requires mastication should not be 
used until the child's first set of teeth are well developed, and then these 
articles should be administered in small quantities and the child taught to 
chew them as well as possible before swallowing. It is rather difficult to teach 
a child to chew, as the natural tendency after twelve or fifteen months of 
milk feeding is to swallow any solid bodies placed in its mouth as soon as 
possible. 

If the food disagrees with the child, after it begins to take other food in 
addition to milk, an effort should be made to find what particular element is 
at fault. There are many theories advanced in regard to this matter, but a 
safe way is to withhold one of the elements which is most open to suspicion 
and see if the disorder which had been noticed is removed. By a little ex- 
perimenting of this kind, in a gentle way, a more rational feeding of the infant 
may be secured. 

Diet at Weaning.— An important part of infant feeding relates to what 
diet should be used immediately after weaning. The time of weaning, of 
course, is variable. Some authors recommend that it be done at eight or 
nine months. This, I think, is entirely too early. If the child is weaned at 
fifteen months, it is none too old, and even a longer period may be desirable 
at times. There are, however, many cases where earlier weaning becomes 
advisable and e\-en necessary. Hence, it is well to consider just what 
foods are best for the weaned infant at that early period, say before the ex- 
piration of the first vear. Some mothers seem to think that the first tooth 
of the infant shows that the time for weaning is at hand. This, undoubtedly, 
is a false indication, as a child cannot eat with a single tooth. The most 
natural period, it seems to me, would be when the first temporary teeth are 



DIET DURING THE SECOND YEAR OF LIFE. 503 

fully formed; in other words, when the child has completed its "second sum- 
mer." The infant then has both incisors and molars for use in mastication. 
When the weaning is decided upon, it should be done gradually, giving at 
first a small quantity of foreign food, and gradually increasing it as the 
quantity of mother's milk is decreased. 

Use of Starchy Foods. — Some trouble may be experienced in teaching 
the infant to take the new foods, and this should be undertaken with patience 
and perseverance. Great care should be exercised in not passing too rapidly 
to a carbohydrate diet which is rich in starch. For this reason malted cereals 
perhaps are to be preferred at first to the unmalted; but at this time of life 
it is necessary that the power of the child's organism for converting starch be 
exercised, at least slightly, and hence the administration of a small amount of 
starch, a very small amount at the beginning, is desirable. The malted cereals 
could then be gradually decreased in quantity and the unmalted increased. 
There is no objection to thoroughly cooking the cereal in order that the starch 
may be as much emulsified as possible, and thus rendered more susceptible 
to the action of the ferments of the mouth and of the intestinal tract beyond 
the stomach. There is perhaps no more valuable food at this time than oat- 
meal cooked many hours and given in very small quantities. Most healthy 
children soon acquire a fondness for this diet, to which a little milk should be 
added. Later cream may be substituted Ayholly or in part for milk, but it 
must not be too rich. In this way, in a few weeks, or at most months, a child 
will gradually be weaned from the breast without having had any disagreeable 
experiences and without creating any unnecessary disturbance in the home. 

While oatmeal is especially recommended it is by no means to be inferred 
that other cereals, when properly prepared, are not good. Bread and other 
cooked foods can be given gradually as the child's ability to masticate its 
food properly is increased. At first the bread should be very soft, so that even 
if it fails of mastication it may not irritate the stomach. As a rule, the child 's 
appetite can be consulted, at least partially, but not always. Firmness on 
the part of the mother at this period is most desirable, sinc^ when a child has 
eaten what is known to be a sufficient quantity for its proper nutrition, no 
more should be given, even though the child cry for it, as it often does. There 
is perhaps no more dangerous habit than that of giving food to children 
because they cry for it. When we consider what is fed to infants in this pro- 
miscuous way, it is remarkable that the death-rate among them^is not even 
greater than it is. 

Diet During the Second Year of Life. — The infant begins to speak 
during its second year and is entering childhood. The quantity of food which 
it consumes should, of course, be gradually increased as the child grows. At 
this period, however, great care should be exercised to prevent the fat-form- 
ing habit, which is very apt to be acquired by some children. The moment 



504 infants' and invalids' foods. 

any excessive amount of fat is developed, the food should be diminished in 
quantity, even at the penalty of having a crying child. Firmness on the part 
of the parents at this period of life will save many a pang in the future, for 
parent and child. 

Later Feeding, — After the second year the child's tastes may be con- 
sidered more, but in all cases the quantity as well as the quality of its food 
should be watched. Children, as a rule, are very fond of meats (including 
fowl, fish, etc.), and there is a tendency on their part to eat them too exclusively. 
While meat, in my opinion, is a legitimate article of food for a child, it 
should be used in moderation, and not to the exclusion of cereals and a proper 
amount of fruits. All fruits, however, should be given in the form of fruit 
juices or as cooked fruits, until the child is at least three or even four years of 
age. The ingestion of fruits, without proper mastication, is a frequent cause 
of irritation, colic, vomiting, and other digestive disturbances in children. 

Difficulty of Digesting Protein. — One of the chief difificulties in the 
artificial nutrition of the human infant is found in the difficulty it experiences 
in digesting foreign protein. As is well known, protein is digested in an acid 
medium, and the gastric juice of the human infant has a low content of hy- 
drochloric acid during the tirst few months of existence. It is evident, there- 
fore, that in a stomach of this kind the digesting of any considerable quantity 
of protein, especially a foreign protein, is extremely difficult. In fact, when 
feeding an infant with any foreign milk, particularly that of the cow, clots 
of undigested protein are often found in the feces. On the other hand, the 
fats and the sugar of milk are much more easily digested, and the high content 
of milk-sugar in mother's milk shows that this substance may be easily di- 
gested even if present in proportionately large quantities. It would seem, 
therefore, only rational in the preparation of an artificial infant's food (that 
is, milk provided from other sources) to secure a milk rich in sugar and low 
in protein. For this reason the suggestion is well worth considering that the 
milk of the mare and the ass should be used as extensively as possible for 
infant feeding when mother's milk is not available. 

There is special danger in feeding an infant which is not entirely robust a 
milk containing too large a content of protein. The first effect is to make 
curd of the milk, and these lumps of curd resist the feeble efforts of the infant 's 
stomach at digestion, and remain to cause indigestion, nausea, and finally 
colic and diarrhea. Even if all digested, it would provide a plethora of protein, 
which might prove seriously inconvenient. The difficulty cannot be corrected 
by merely diluting the cow's milk with water, for while the percentage of 
protein might be reduced to the normal amount required, at the same time 
there is a proportional reduction of the percentage of milk sugar, which is 
already too low in cow's milk for the purposes of infant nutrition. 

The Soy Bean as a Food for Infants and Children. — Of interest 



THE SOY BEAN AS A FOOD FOR INFANTS AND CHILDREN. 505 

in connection with tlie difficulties of protein digestion are the investiga- 
tions of Dr. Ruhrah,* of the value of the soy bean under certain disordered 
conditions of nutrition in vi^hich the protein of cow's milk is not assimilated. 
The soy bean is extensively used for food purposes in China and Japan, and 
has come into some prominence in this country. There is often difficulty in 
feeding infants, and even young children, a sufficient supply of protein in the 
form of milk, and the soy bean seems to offer the protein in a more di- 
gestible form. The soy bean flour, in which form it is used as a source of 
food, was analyzed, with the following results: 

Percent. 

Protein, 44-64 

Fat, 19-43 

Mineral matter, 4-20 

Moisture, 5-26 

Crude fiber, 2.35 

Cane sugar, 9.34 

Non-nitrogenous extract, i4-7^ 

Starch, None 

Reducing sugars, None 

Polarization normal weight due to optically active^ substance other 
than cane sugar (included in proteids and non-nitrogenous ex- 
tract), - ...- 7-86° 

The protein in the flour of the soy bean is one-third greater than that in 
the whole bean. This is caused by the removal of the coarse fibrous hulls, 
which contain little protein, during the process of grinding. It is interesting 
to compare the analysis given with that of a round of l^eef, which has the 
following composition in its edible part: 

Percent. 

Protein 20.3 

Fat, -. ' 13-6 

Moisture, 65.5 

One ounce of the soy bean flour, representing 60 calories, contains about 
13 grams of protein, and the flour can be used in the form of gruel or 
broth or in making biscuits or muffins. It can also be mixed with cereals, 
barley jelly, cream of wheat, and other substances. It isTecommended not 
only for healthy children, but in cases of summer diarrheas and other forms of 
intestinal disturbances to which infants during their first summer are subject. 
Gruel is recommended in which one or two tablespoonfuls to the quart is 
used. As a rule. Dr. Ruliriih found that this gruel agreed well with infants, 
rarely causing any vomiting or increase in the diarrhea. Barley or some 
other cereal should be added from time to time as required. In later stages 
of the feeding milk may be added to the soy bean gruel with advantage. 
This gruel is also recommended by Dr. Ruhrah as a diluent of cows' milk. 
When the food is prepared from condensed milk, the soy bean is valuable, 
because it not only increases the protein content of the food, but apparently 
*Journal of the American Medical Association, No. 21, May 21, 1910. 



5o6 



infants' and invalids' foods. 



furnishes the protein in a more digestible form. If feeding is practiced accord- 
ing to the caloric theory, the values secured by different quantities of the soy 
bean meal, used in the form of gruel, are calculated as follows: 



Quantities of Meal Used. 



I oz. (i level tablespoonful to the quart),.. 
I oz. (2 level tablespoonfuls to the quart),, 
f oz. (3 level tablespoonfuls to the quart),. 

1 oz. (4 level tablespoonfuls to the quart),. 

2 ozs. to the quart 

3 ozs. to the quart, 

4 ozs. to the quart, 

5 ozs. to the quart, 

6 ozs. to the quart, 

7 ozs. to the quart, 

8 ozs. to the quart, 



Percentage Composition. 









Calo- 








ries. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Sugar. 




0-35 


0.15 


0.08 


30 


0.70 


0.30 


0.15 


60 


I.O 


0-45 


0.23 


90 


1.4 


0.60 


0.30 


120 


2.8 


1.2 


0.60 


240 


4.2 


1.8 


0.90 


360 


5-6 


2.4 


1.2 


480 


7.0 


3-0 


^■S 


600 


8.4 


3-6 


1.8 


720 


9.8 


4.2 


2.1 


840 


1 1.0 


4.8 


2.4 


960 



A quart of gruel is made by boiling from i level tablespoonful to 8 ounces 
of the soy bean flour in one quart of water for fifteen minutes, adding water 
to make up for loss by evaporation. Salt should be added to taste. These 
gruels do not thicken during cooking, as they contain no starch, and readily 
settle on standing. This may be overcome by adding i to 2 heaping teaspoon- 
fuls of barley, oat, rye or wheat flour before cooking, which will add from 
0.6 to 1.2 percent starch to the gruels, and also slightly increase the percent- 
age of protein. 

MOTHER'S MILK. 

The Natural Food of Infants. — It has already been stated that the 
natural food of the infant is mother's milk. The demands of modern society, 
unfortunately, have deprived the American infant, in many cases, of the food 
which nature intended it to have. Illness, or the idiosyncrasy or neglect of 
the mother, in many more cases, has taken from the infant its natural nourish- 
ment. But it is a condition rather than a theory that confronts the American 
infant, and often it is a choice between starvation and a modified or artificially 
prepared food. 

Dr. Findlay, in "The Lancet" for January 8, 1910, calls attention to the 
fact that there are essential differences between human and cowl's milk which 
should not be overlooked. These differences extend to all the constituents 
of the milk — the proteid, the whey, the sugar, and the mineral constituents. 
The presence of the extra amount of mineral matter in cow's milk is of special 
significance. Some human milks have exceptionally large quantities of mineral 
matter, and these have been found to be irritating to the stomach of the child, 



VARIATION IN FAT CONTENT OF MOTHER'S MILK. 507 

while those that contained the normal amount were easily assimilated. The 
good results obtained, therefore, from diluting cow's milk with water before 
using it as food do not come from diminishing the amount of proteid, as has 
been supposed generally, but from the reduction in the proportion of the inor- 
ganic salts. The salts of sodium, especially, when given to children, are very 
disturbing, inducing usually a rise in temperature and an increase in the elec- 
trical excitability of the muscles. On the other hand, calcium salts have the 
opposite effects. The difference in salt content alone does not explain altogether 
the superiority of human milk, since the mineral matters of human milk, if 
separated and given independently to the infants, produce irritating re- 
snlts. Apparently human milk contains some beneficial organic substances 
not well understood in which the mineral matters form an active constituent, 
and which are destroyed in their separation from the milk. The general con- 
clusion of the investigations is that we do not yet fully understand the secret 
of the beneficial effects of human milk, but that it probably is due to some 
essential and probably organic substance of the nature of which we are at 
present entirely ignorant. 

Variation in Character and Quantity of Mother's Milk. — During its 
prenatal life the child has been supported solely by the blood of the mother. 
In its first days of infant life it takes but little nourishment, and that is 
of a rather extraordinary character. The mother's milk, at the time of 
the birth of the offspring, as is the case with the milk of all mammals, is not 
normal. In fact, it is not milk at all, but is»a thick fluid called colostrum, 
which has quite a different chemical composition from normal milk; there 
is no doubt, however, that it is the normal food of the child during the first 
hours of its existence. It is generally supposed that the mother secretes the 
greatest amount of milk at the time of birth. This, however, is not the case. 
The amount of milk secreted by a healthy mother increases verv rapidly 
during the first period of the child 's growth, and reaches a maximum about the 
time the child requires the largest amount. It then begins to decline as the 
child may be fed with other things until the weaning period arrives. The 
mother's milk usually reaches a quite constant composition after about the 
third week, and after this period contains the following ingredients in about 
the percentages named : 

Percent. 

Protein, i. 0-1.5 

Fat, 3-5-40 

Sugar 6.5-7.0 

Mineral substances, 0.2 

Organic substances, 0.6 

Variation in Fat Content of Mother's Milk.— It is evident from 
the analytical data which have been collected that the composition of mother's 
milk varies quite as much as that of other mammals, and that even in the 



5o8 infants' and invalids' foods. 

natural feeding of an infant from the mother's breast conditions often arise 
which are inimical to the child 's health. These conditions are due both to the 
variations which take place in the milk of the mother, changing the relative 
constituents or character of the various ingredients, and to the varying vitality 
of the child. Dr. Tayler- Jones, in an article in the "Archives of Pediatrics," 
treats particularly of the variation of the fat percentage as a factor in feeding. 
Dr. Jones draws the following conclusions from the results of her studies : 

1. The importance of mother's milk cannot be overestimated. A physi- 
cian should feel that he is taking the baby's life in his hands in lightly changing 
from breast milk and should so impress the mother. Besides the immediate 
danger, which at times is not so great, it lessens the stamina for later years. A 
right start in anything is essential, but nothing is more important than a right 
start in Hfe. 

2. If there is some disturbance to the nursing infant, the breast milk should 
be examined, unless some cause, like tuberculosis, is at once recognized. It 
is not long since patients were pronounced anemic upon looking at them, but 
to-day the hemoglobin must be estimated. So must it be with the breast milk. 

3. Fat is an important factor if only for its varial^ility. 

4. The importance of the fats has increased lately since the Breslau in- 
vestigators gave them such an important role in infantile atrophy (marasmus). 

5. For the most part fat gradually increases in amount from the begin- 
ning to the end of a feeding, with occasionally a dip down at the end. As yet 
there is no proof that the increase is arithmetical. A baby that needs more fat 
than it is getting can easily be put to the breast after some milk has been 
pumped out. 

6. A fat percentage, within a few tenths of a percent of the average, may 
be obtained by taking ec^ual specimens from the beginning and end of the 
feeding and examining the mixture. This is entirely practicable clinically 
and should be done. 

Addition of Alcohol in Beverages to the Diet of Mothers. — It is pop- 
ularly believed in many countries where fermented beverages are commonly 
consumed that the addition of wine or beer to the diet of the mother is bene- 
ficial, improving the quality of the milk and also sustaining the strength of 
the mother for her extra duties. The use of alcohol in moderate quantities 
does not give rise to the presence of any alcohol whatever in the milk. Pre- 
sumably, the whole of the alcohol is burned in the mother's body, or at least 
it does not enter the secretion of the mammary glands; hence there is no danger 
usually of administering alcohol to the child by giving it to the mother. It 
is doubtless true that the character of the mother's milk may be somewhat 
modified by the use of alcoholic beverages or alcoholic malt extracts. Ex- 
periments have shown that an alcoholic beverage tends perhaps to increase 
the fat, and to a less extent the protein. While it is true that physicians, as 
a rule, are very loath to recommend that the mother drink a fermented bever- 
age, there are some cases of ill health in which such advice has been given and 



VARIATIONS IN THE COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT MILKS. 509 

followed with benefit, especially if the mother, before the birth of the child, 
has been in the habit of using a moderate amount of alcoholic beverages. 
In such cases perhaps it is not advisable to prohibit entirely the use of these 
articles during the period of lactation. On the other hand, those who have 
not been accustomed to the use of alcohol may find that there is danger of 
its administration proving deleterious both to the mother and to the child. 
The safest way is to get along without such be\erages. 

The Effect of Worry or Excitement on the Mother's Milk. — Any sud- 
den trouble or shock which produces excitement or suffering in the mother is 
apt to induce very radical changes in both the character and quantity of milk. 
These changes are of such a nature often as to interfere with the nutrition 
of the child. For this reason a nursing mother should be kept as free as pos- 
sible from excitement or from participation in any functions which produce 
unusual excitement, worry, or anxiety. Especially should social functions 
of all kinds be abandoned during the nursing period, and if possible all cause 
for worry should be kept from her. 



COMPOSITION OF HUMAN MILK COMPARED WITH THAT 
OF OTHER MAMMALS. 

In the nutrition of the young of man the milks of only a few other mammals 
are employed, cow's milk being generally ' used in this country. In other 
countries, and sometimes in this, the milk of other mammals is used, namely, 
the goat, sheep, mare, and ass, but these are'^not common substitutes for 
mother's milk in the United States, and it may be said that the milk almost 
universally used in lieu of mother's milk is that of the cow. 

Variations in the Composition of Different Milks. — Cow's milk is 
by no means of uniform composition. It varies in a very large degree, not 
only among different breeds, but among the individual animals of the same 
breed. The same statement may be made of mother's milk and the milk 
of other animals. The natural adaptability of the young child to slight vari- 
ations in its nourishment is thus the necessitv of its existence. This renders 
it advisable for a child deprived of its mother's milk to be nourished in a 
rational and systematic way in order to insure a growth which even approx- 
imates that provided by its natural milk-supply; in fact, if the mother be suf- 
fering in any way from a disease or from malnutrition, a better food for 
the child may be usually supplied from the cow than it would otherwise re- 
ceive. Upon the whole, therefore, it mav be said that the nutrition of the 
young infant deprived of its mother's milk is not so hopeless nor so difhcult 
a task as is commonly supposed. It requires, however, a degree of skill, 
patience, and efficiency which is usually not found among those who are 
called upon to supply the needed nourishment. 



5IO infants' and invalids' foods. 

Comparative Analyses. — If the student begins to look through authori- 
ties for the composition of mother 's milk, he becomes at once confused. The 
best that can be done, therefore, is to say that the variations in mother's milk 
are quite wide, but not of a character to threaten the health of the infant. The 
})rincipal ingredients of mother's milk are the nitrogenous constituents cr 
protein, sugar, fat, and mineral substances. I have compared the analyses 
given by many authors, and it appears that the following may be considered 
a fair average of the data which have been reported, both for woman's milk 
and principal substitutes therefor: 

Woman's Cow's Goat's Mare's Ass's 

Milk. Milk. Milk. Milk. Milk. 

Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. Percent. 

Protein, 1.5 3.0 2.80 1.90 1.60 

Fat, 3-5 3-9 340 i.oo 0.03 

Sugar, 6.5 5.0 3.80 6.33 5.60 

Mineral matter (asW, 0.2 0.7 0.95 0.45 0.36 

Water, 88.3 87.4, 89.05 90.32 91.51 



From this comparison it appears that human milk does not correspond 
to any of the principal milks which are used as substitutes. The amount 
of protein in the milk of the mare and the ass appro.ximates more nearly 
the composition of human milk than does that of the cow's or goat's- 
milk. 

Value of Goat's Milk, Especially as to Fat Constituents. — Atten- 
tion has already been directed to the composition of goat 's milk and its possi- 
ble utilization as an infant food. Some interesting investigations were reported 
by Dr. Bell in a paper read before the Section on Pediatrics, New York Academy 
of Medicine, in January, igo6. Goat's milk was fed to a number of 
infants under the care of Dr. Bell, and in many cases with good results. The 
average percentage of fat in the goat's milk used was 4.8 percent, and of pro- 
teids, 3.8 percent. In closing his paper Dr. Bell states: 

In view of these physical and clinical differences in the various milk fats, 
not only as regards different animals but individual breeds, or possibl}- mem- 
bers of the same breed, and the experiments on animals with fat-laden foods 
relative to the digestive secretions, it seems, reasonable and promising to make 
extensive clinical observations, so that we may be governed by practical as 
well as theoretical knowledge in this most important branch of our daily work. 
It seems probable that a great deal of mystery heretofore existing in the ad- 
aptation of milk to infant ifeeding, not only as regards fat, but proteid indiges- 
tion, will be largely cleared up by a more intimate knowledge of the chemistry 
of the fat constituents employed. In this connection we might pertinently 
ask if we are using the best and most economical source of milk supply. While 
not possible of confirmation, I behevegood milch goats (the Nubian, for instance) 
will give a larger milk ratio per expense of food and keeping than the cow. 
She is more docile, less excitable, not subject to tuberculosis or other disease 



COMPOSITION OF THE MINERAL MATTER OF MILK. 5 II 

in this climate. Being a browser rather than a grazer, she will thrive when cows 
would not; and, above all, she is cleanly. Her excrement is soUd and her tail 
short, consequently she is not covered with manure as is the cow. It is safe 
to assert that the production of cow's milk, free from manure bacteria is 
commercially impossible. Not so with the goat; she can be easily washed 
(tubbed if necessary) and aproned for milking. I believe an assured non- 
contaminated goat 's milk supply not only commercially possible but prof- 
itable. 

Conclusions. — First, the digestion of fat retards the flow and diminishes the 
amount of gastric juice, at the same time lowering its digestive power. Second, 
the ingestion of fluid oil increases the flow of pancreatic juice and probably 
the activity of its fat-splitting enzyme steapsin. Third, in case the fat is not 
fluid at body temperature, it may still further retard and prevent the flow of 
gastric juice according to the first hypothesis mentioned by Dr. Labassoff, 
viz., coating over the gastric mucous membrane, thereby mechanically inter- 
fering with secretion, or in the case of coagulable food, such as caseinogen, 
by covering the curds with a la}-er of insoluljle fat, therel^y preventing the action 
of gastric juice upon them, though secreted in sufficient amount and power, 
and also by preventing the action of the trypsin upon them, though brought in 
contact with an increased supply of pancreatic juice, assuming that the action 
of the steapsin on the fats will be partially nil, or at least much impeded by 
the insolubility of their fat-covering permitting the curds to pass undigested. 
Fourth, if goat's milk fat, relative to that of cow's milk more closely approxi- 
mates human milk fat, and if the proteid and sugar constituents are not more 
incompatible than in cow 's milk, and if there exist no serious commercial ob- 
stacles, goat's milk merits an extensive arid thorough clinical trial in infant 
feeding. 



Composition of the Mineral Matter of Milk. — The average quan- 
tity of mineral matter in milk is pretty close lo seven-tenths of one percent. 
The average quantity of mineral matter in woman's milk is considerably less 
and is variously given by different authors. There is also a marked difference 
in the composition of the mineral matters of the milks of flesh-eating animals 
and of herb-eating animals. Among the important mineral constituents of 
milk, or rather those of great dietetic importance, is lecithin, a substance allied 
to protein and which uniformly contains phosphorus. It is true that a con- 
siderable amount of the phosphorus which nourishes the tissues, and especially 
the bones of the growing infant, is provided from the phosphorus in the lec- 
ithin of its foods. Woman's milk is particularlv rich in lecithin, and thus 
well suited to nourish especiallv those tissues of the bodv in which- phosphorus 
is an important element, such as the bones, the nerves, and the brain. The 
milk of the goat contains slightly more mineral matter than that of the cow, 
while the sheep contains slightly less. The amount of mineral matter in the 
milk of the horse and the ass is not quite half as much as it is in the cow's 
milk. The percentage composition of the mineral matter does not differ 
greatly in different milks. The distribution of the mineral substances in the 



512 INFANTS AND INVALIDS FOODS. 

milk of the cow ma}-, therefore, be regarded as typical of all. The average 
composition of the ash of cow's milk is as follows: 

Percent. 

Lime, 20.3 

Magnesia 2.0 

Potash 28.7 

Soda, 6.7 

Phosphoric anhydrid, 29.3 

Chlorin, ii.o 

Carbonic acid, - i.o 

Oxid of iron 4.0 

103.0 
Less oxygen as chlorin, 3.0 

1 00.0 



The phosphoric acid, lime, and iron are the chief nourishing constituents of 
the ash of milk. The magnesia, the potash, the soda, the chlorin, and 
the carbonic acid are of less importance in nutrition. 

Adaptation of the Milk of Each Animal to its Own Young. — Even a 
brief study of the composition of the milk of different animals cannot fail to 
lead to the conclusion that nature has provided for each kind of animal a 
particular kind of diet. We cannot even say that the same substances in dif- 
ferent kinds of milk have the same nutritive properties, and certainly they have 
not the same adaptability. For instance, that constituent largely present in 
milk, namely, nitrogen or casein and its cogeners, while theoretically almost 
the same in any of the milks of the various animals, is in fact entirely dif- 
ferent in its adaptability for nourishing the young. The same is true of the 
milk sugar, the fat, and the mineral constituents. Why this is so is perhaps 
beyond the power of man to sav; that it is so, is evident from the fact that each 
kind of young does best on its own mother 's milk. Investigations of the young 
of many animals have shown that these elements are present in the body of 
the young at the time of birth in almost the same proportion as in the natural 
milk of the mother of the animal. It has been found, for instance, that the 
milk of the dog had an ash content exactly the same as the body of a new-born 
puppy. Lusk draws the conclusion from this that the ash of the milk is perfectly 
adapted for the construction of the puppy tissue, and, further, he calls attention 
to the fact, that it is entirely different in composition from human or cow's 
or other milks. 

Percentage Composition of Milk in Relation to Growth. — In addition 
to the preceding statements, it may be shown that the percentage quantity 
of certain milk constituents is related more or less closely to the rate of 
growth of the animal. Lusk quotes a table from Bunge which shows this 
comparison. 



MULTIPLICITY OF INFANTS' FOODS. 



513 



Kind of .Animal. 


Time in Days 

FOR THE New- 
born Animal 
TO Double 
Its Weight. 


100 Parts of Milk Contain: 




Proteid. | Ash. 


Calcium Oxld. 


Man 

Horse 


180 
60 

47 
19 
18 
10 
8 
7 


1.6 
2.0 
3-5 
4-3 
5-6 
6-5 
7-1 
9-S 


0.2 
•4 
•7 
.8 

•9 
1-3 


0.0328 
.124 
.160 


Calf 


Kid 


.210 


Pig 




Lamb 


.272 


Dog 


•453 


Cat 







Lusk has made a careful study of the science of nutrition of young animals 
and has quoted many authorities supporting the conclusions which he has 
drawn. It is found, for instance, that human milk which is secured from three to 
twelve days after the birth of the child contains double as much iron at that time 
as is found at later periods of lactation. Especially if the mother is imper- 
fectly fed, or lives in squalor or poverty, the percentage of iron in the milk 
rapidly diminishes. The quantity of lime in cow's milk is much greater than 
that required for the human infant, but is adapted to the needs of the calf. 
The relative composition of cow's and mother's milk at a period of lactation 
of five or six months shows a very distinct, difference. For instance, the pro- 
teid in the cow's milk at that period is approximately 3.5 percent and in human 
milk only i percent, while the fat in the two are almost the same, though the 
cow's milk has slightly the greater quantity. On the other hand, the milk 
sugar in the cow's milk at five months is very much less than that in human 
milk at the same period of lactation. All these data show that there is not so 
much carbohydrate, that is, milk sugar, in cow's milk as is required for the 
normal nutrition of the human infant. 



SOME PROFESSIONAL OPINIONS OF PREPARED 
INFANTS' FOODS. 
Multiplicity of Infants' Foods. — In general it may be said that the 
multiplication of so-called prepared, artificial, or manufactured infants' foods 
cannot be looked upon with much favor. Such foods may often be kept for 
months before they are used; may be subjected to all kinds of bacterial and 
other contamination; and may fail in almost every respect to meet the conditions 
of ill heahh in infants, though at times they may, and apparently do, furnish 
the proper nutrition for a healthy child. These preparations, however, as 
will be seen in the more particular discussion which will follow, are not of 
the kind which require previous manufacture, but can be easily supplied at 
home by the intelligent mother or nurse. The evident advantage of the home- 

34 



514 infants' and invalids' foods. 

modified or prepared milk is that it can be made of fresh materials, and under 
the supervision of the one most interested in the welfare of the child. A col- 
lection of the analyses of some of the more commonly advertised infants' and 
invalids' foods is presented in the table given on page 590, under invalids' 
foods, more as an illustration of what has been done than with anv idea of 
making a complete list of the foods oft'ered for consumption, as their number 
is legion. 

Definition and Standard for Infants' Foods. — Few countries have 
made an effort to estabhsh an official definition and standard for infants' 
foods, but the colony of Victoria is an exception to this rule. In "The British 
Food Journal" for April, 1909, page 59, is found a definition and standard 
for infants ' foods in the colony, which is as follows : 

Depnition: Infants' food is food described or sold as an article of food 
specially suitable for infants of twelve (12) months of age or under. 

Standard: Infants' food shall contain no woody fibre, no preservative sub- 
stance, and no mineral substance insoluble in acid; and, unless described or 
sold specifically as food suitable only for infants over the age of six (6) 
months, shall, when prepared as directed by any accompanying label, contain no 
starch, and shall contain the essential constituents of, and conform approx- 
imately in proportional composition to, normal mother's milk. 

Prepared Infants' Foods Not Generally Commended. — Prepared in- 
fants' foods are not looked upon with general favor by the medical profession, 
especially those who treat principally the diseases of children. A common fault, 
which cannot be too strongly condemned, is the extravagant claims put forth 
respecting the merits of these prepared foods. Products showing wide typical 
differences in composition are advertised under practically the same claims for 
excellence. Against these extravagant advertisements must be placed the 
almost unanimous opinion of competent medical authorities, not interested in 
any way directly or indirectly in the preparation or sale of any particular kind 
of proprietary food. 

It is not the purpose of this manual to deny that many of these foods are 
both nutritious and helpful in many cases; but it is certainly not to be supposed 
that they have all the virtues claimed for them. The discussion which follows 
must not be considered in any sense as an attack upon the value of prepared 
infants' foods; but only as an attempt to set forth as fairly as possible their 
actual composition and nutritive value; describe the methods of their prepa- 
ration and administration, in so far as known, and to call attention to the 
fact that these foods are to be regarded as substitutes to be used only in cases 
of emergency and are not to be relied upon for the nourishment of infants in 
general. 

One eminent practitioner says that he does not believe that any prepared 
infants' food can meet the requirements of infant feeding, because it is an 



PREPARED INFANTS FOODS NOT GENERALLY COMMENDED. 



515 



individual and not a general question. Another says that a long experience in 
the feeding of infants has convinced him that an ideal food need contain noth- 
ing beyond the normal constituents of cow's milk, and that he has not found 
any necessity for the addition of starch or other modifying or converting agents. 
Another says: "In my opinion the constituents of the infant's food should 
be those of milk more or less modified in preparation to meet the individual 
case. In substituting cow 's milk for mother 's milk it is generally not necessary 
to split the proteins. On the contrary, it is generally better not to do so. It 
is quite as necessary to avoid an excess of fat as of proteins. Sterilization 
long continued in this case is capable of causing scurvy. Pasteurization 
with ordinary plants and ordinary care is not reliable, because of the dan- 
ger of sterilizing on the one hand, or keeping at a fermenting temperature on 
the other. As a rule, neither is necessary with a clean milk and sufficient 
care. " 
- Another writes: " I am opposed to the use of all infant foods except as thev 
are makeshifts. As such they often serve the useful ptirpose of tiding the 
infants over periods where fresh milk is not tolerated. Their continuous 
and prolonged use is regarded as dangerous. " 

Dr. Brennemann, of Chicago, has contributed a chapter to Hall's work on 
"Nutrition and Dietetics," * in which the following statement is made: 

The only food that meets all of the infant 's requirements is human milk. 
This is especially true during the first few weeks of life, when any artificial 
feeding is often a dangerous substitute. Breasi feeding should be encouraged 
in every way, even if only for a short time. The pessimism about increasing 
inability of mothers to nurse their babies is not entirelv well founded. From 
the "consultations de nourrissons" in Paris, and from many other sources, 
comes increasing evidence that many more mothers would be able to nurse 
for many months, and nearly all of them for many weeks, if they were properly 
encouraged, and properly taught how to nurse, and how to care for themselves 
and for their babies. 

Dr. Brennemann makes the follovi'ing statements in regard to substitutes for 
mother's milk: 

The very extensive use of these so-called "foods" warrants their brief dis- 
cussion. For our purpose they may be di\ided into two classes: 

1. Those that are advertised as complete foods in themselves and contain 
milk. 

2. Those that are to be used only in conjunction with fresh milk, and are so 
advertised. 

In the first class are the sweetened condensed milks, the malted milks, 
Nestle 's food, etc. Condensed milk is milk evaporated to about one-fourth 
of its volume with the addition of about forty percent of cane sugar. In the 
others the milk is evaporated to dryness, and sugar and partially or completely 
dextrinized flours are added. In the malted milks the predominant carbo- 

* Reprinted from Hall's "Nutrition and Dietetics." Copyright, 1910, by D. Apple- 
ton & Co. 



5i6 infants' and invalids' foods. 

hydrate is. malt sugar; they are all deficient in fat and fresh animal proteids, 
and contain an excess of carbohydrates. Many infants apparently thrive 
on them alone for some time, but are always less immune and resistant to 
infections, and practically invariably, if fed on these alone for a long time, will 
show decided evidence of rickets, often of scurvy, and other nutritional dis- 
turbances. 

In the second class belong such malted foods as Mellin's and Hcrlick's, that 
are composed chiefly of dextrins and maltose, especially the latter; the farin- 
aceous foods, such as imperial granum. Ridge's food, Robinson's patent barley 
flour, etc., that are composed' largely, about 75 percent (Holt), of unchanged 
starch; Eskay's albuminized food, made up largely of dextrins, dextrose, and 
lactose, 67.81 percent (Holt); and starch. 21.21 percent (Holt). They take ihe 
place of the simpler carbohydrates, barley, oatmeal, sugar, etc., -over which they 
have few or no advantages. The malt preparations are useful when malt 
sugar is desired rather than milk sugar or cane sugar. The farinaceous prepa- 
rations form a convenient transition either in the milk, or as a porridge, to 
the cereals. The chief objections to these "foods" are the price; the use of 
the word "food," that leads the uninformed to think of it as the important 
part of the mixture and not the milk; the questionable claim that they have 
some special virtues as milk modifiers; and the directions which go with them 
that assume that all babies of a certain age are alike, and that the mother 
(for they are advertised to the laity) and a printed page alone can meet one 
of the most complex problems in medicine. 

Opinions of an Eminent English Physician. — It is well to consider 
the opinions of those who have made a scientific study of the nutrition of infants 
and are qualified by their education and experience to judge of the efhcacy of 
different foods. Dr. Robert Hutchison, who is the assistant physician to the 
London Hospital and the Hospital for Sick Children, has written most interest- 
ingly in regard to the large group of infant 's foods offered to the consumers 
in England. He divides the English infants' foods into the following three 
groups : 

1. Complete Sithstitutes for Human Milk. — In the first of these are in- 
cluded all which are intended to be complete substitutes for human milk and 
on which an infant may be healthfully reared without other food. He states 
that such foods are, practically speaking, desiccated milks, although many of 
them not only have had water removed, but have had other constituents added. 
Such foods may prove very heahhful in the nutrition of children, but still 
must be used with caution. One important precaution is that when a child 
is more than a few months old some fresh fruit juices should be added to the 
food; otherwise scurvy may result. Such foods also have the disadvantage of 
containing too little fat. For the poor, however, the great drawback is the 
cost, as it is vastly more expensive to rear a child on one of these foods than 
upon fresh or even condensed milk. 

2. Malted Foods. — The second class of infant's foods to which Dr. Hutch- 
ison alludes are those which contain malt, or which have been subjected to the 



THE ADDITION OF CEREALS TO INFANT FOODS. 517 

malting process. These, of course, are starchy foods in which the starch has 
been partly converted into sugar by the action of a diastatic ferment. According 
to Dr. Hutchison, infants under six months of age are not able to digest starch, 
and these predigested starch foods have been introduced to meet that diflaculty. 
They are supposed to contain either no starch, or a starch which has undergone 
conversion into dextrin and maltose or dextrose in course of preparation. 
One of the foods to which reference is made is well known in this country and 
may be regarded, for practical purposes, as simply a desiccated malt extract. 
It bears to malt extract very much the same relation that some of the foods 
of the first group do to condensed milk. Dr. Hutchison suggests that an in- 
fants' food of this class, if a manufactured food is to be used, is about as good 
as any, but it is only intended to be used as an addition to milk. 

This class of infants' food also includes those prepared with enzyms which 
are supposed to convert the starch during the preparation of the food. The 
chief objection to this (supposing such a conversion could really take place) 
is the haphazard method of preparing food in a general way in the nursery. The 
particular food, to which reference is made, is poor in fat, especially for a 
very young infant, and the child's diet is, therefore, apt to be deficient in 
that ingredient if such a food is largely relied upon. 

3. Starchy Foods. — There is still another group of infants' foods, according 
to Dr. Hutchison, which make no pretens^ of being malted at all. In other 
words, they are starchy foods pure and simple. In some cases they may have 
been baked so that the starch grains have been ruptured, but otherwise they are 
very much like flour. Such foods may not harm children who are able to 
digest starch, and although they may be of some use, by way of change, they 
have no real advantage over simple preparations such as baked flour, oat 
flour, or any other ordinary cereal preparations. For children less than six 
months of age such foods should be avoided altogether. Dr. Hutchison says: 

"I think that it must have fallen to the experience of everyone here to have 
seen a great deal of harm done by a misuse of these foods. In the case of 
adults who are confined to a semifluid diet such preparations- may occasionally 
be of service, but an intelligent manipulation of flour, oatmeal, and an infu- 
sion of malt will make recourse to them very rarely necessary." 

The Addition of Cereals to Infants' Foods. — There is a very wide 
difference of opinion in the medical profession regarding the advisabihty of 
the use of cereals in infants' foods. It may be said that there are two schools 
which are more or less in agreement on some points and quite opposed in their 
opinion on others. Of the one school it may be said that the admixture or 
some form of cereal to infants' foods is admitted onlv when cow's milk is 
substituted for the milk of the mother. The argument is that cow's milk is 
not a normal food for infants, and, therefore, when it is given the admixture 



5i8 infants' and invalids' foods. 

of other substances may be indicated. The theory on which cereal foods in a 
proj)er state of subdivision and cooking are mixed with milk rests on the fact 
that it is supposed to render the curd less coagulable. In ether words, the ad- 
mixture of a certain quantity of rice flour, or barley flour, or wheat flour, to 
the milk tends to keep the curd subdivided and thus avoids the danger of a 
hard mass coagulating in the stomach of the infant. The experience of 
many eminent physicians in this line gives considerable weight to this theory, 
and it is fully developed in some of the standard works on infant feeding. A 
distinction must be made, however, in the opinions of many physicians, be- 
tween those who have never been interested in am- way in any particular 
form of infants' food, and those who have given their opinions at the request of 
manufacturers of these articles of diet. In the one instance the opinion must be 
regarded as unbiased, and in the other as subject to a considerable degree of 
suspicion. One thing should be kept in mind, and that is that the sali\-a of 
the infant contains at most only a trace of the digestive ferment which is cap- 
able of converting starch into sugar. This would indicate that a starchy 
diet is not a normal one for young infants. The boiling of the cereal in water 
and using the water is quite a different proposition, as in such cases very little 
starch enters into the solution. The extract from the boiled cereal is com- 
posed of soluble carbohydrates and other bodies soluble in water, and thus in 
the case of starch, if any be absorbed at all, the first steps of digestion have 
taken place. The addition of barley water or other cereal water to milk is, 
therefore, hardly to be considered in this discussion, but only the addition of 
actual starch. The other school of physicians is strongly of the opinion that 
starch should not be an integral part of an infant's food. 

Pritchard has compiled the most recent information, ba.sed chiefly upon the 
v/ork of Emil Fischer, relating to the digestion of carbohydrates in the intes- 
tinal tract. As a result of these investigations the whole conception of the nutri- 
tion of infants by starch has been greatly modified. While it is true that even 
very young infants mav apparently dispose of starch by digestion in the usual 
way, it is found that this is not the case. Starch given at this early period of 
life may be digested, but it is digested in the wrong way, in the wrong place, 
and by the wrong agencies. Instead of the starch being broken down by the 
proper amylopsin ferment in the duodenum, it is attacked by bacteria in the 
colon and converted into irritating acids, such as acetic, butyric, and valerianic, 
and into gases, such as hydrogen, methane, and carbon dioxid. These results 
should lead pediatrists to an ultra-conservatism in advising starchy additions 
to synthetic infants' food. 

Substitutes for Infants' Foods. — It cannot be admitted that the pre- 
pared solid foods which are not modifications of milk have any right to the 
name of infants' foods. They are, undoubtedly, substitutes for infants' foods, 
and should be so considered and named. It is not intended to denv that these 



SUBSTITUTES FOR INFANTS' FOODS. 519 

foods often have value. They are in some instances undoubtedly utilized by the 
infant vi'ith beneiit, and especially in those cases vi^here the actual food, viz., 
milk, cannot be obtained in the quantity or of the quahty desired. In such 
cases a clean, vs^ell made substitute may often save the infant 's life. The 
number of so-called infants' foods, or substitutes for infants' foods, on the 
market is legion. They are made of widely varying materials put together 
in very different ways. They are sometimes composed chiefly of starch, while 
others have as the most important constituent sugar of milk or other sugars. 
Still other preparations consist largely of malted cereals, the starch during 
the malting process having undergone transformation, chiefly into maltose. 

Relative Nutritive Properties of Different Substitutes. — No very definite 
statement can be made as to the relative value of these substitutes. It may be 
safely asserted, however, that a preparation composed chiefly of starch is the 
least desirable of all. Probably the most desirable would be those which contain 
large quantities of milk sugar or maltose, together with the constituents 
of the malt which accompany the maltose, that is, the protein and the fat. It 
is easy to determine the exact composition of thesfe preparations by analysis, 
and in point of fact in many instances their chemical constitution is plainly 
printed on the labels, so that the users of them know exactly the relative 
quantities of fat, protein, and sugar which they contain. For nutritive pur- 
poses, however, especially in the case of infants, it is not siifhcient simply to 
know the quantity of the several ingredients which are present. It is nec- 
essary also to know the state in which they^ exist and their origin. This 
information is not always communicated to the purchasers and users of 
these compounds. Theoretically, a substitute for infants' food which would 
have approximately the composition of the milk of the mother, of course ex- 
cluding the water, would be most desirable. It would not, apparently, be diffi- 
cult to prepare a compound of such a composition that when one part of it 
was mixed with nine parts of water the solution would have approximately 
the same relative composition as mother's milk, that is, i percent of protein, 
2 percent of fat, 6 percent of milk sugar, and i percent of » miscellaneous con- 
stituents. Even this composition would not be a guarantee that the product 
would be suitable for the nourishment of children. It would be quite im- 
possible, in any artificial way, to make a mixture which would be identical 
in nutritive value with that secreted by the human breast. It cannot, 
therefore, be regarded as of prime necessity that substitutes- for infants' 
foods should have approximately the composition of mother's milk. 
Departures of considerable magnitude might be made from this ideal 
standard without materially affecting the suitability of the preparation 
for nutritive purposes. The chief objection to these prepared foods is 
not that they varv widelv from the dr}' substances in the mother's milk; the 
most serious objection lies in the fact that they are artificially compounded and 



520 



INFANTS AND INVALIDS FOODS. 



cannot possibly take the place of nature's nourishment. It would be unwise 
to place them under universal ban, for reasons already given, but they should 
be used only in cases of necessity, or when the physician specifically advises 
their use and takes the full responsibility therefor. 

Objections to Predigested Milk. — Predigested infant foods, and among 
them predigested milk, are often advertised. The converting of the protein of 
milk (casein) into a soluble form is one of the steps of digestion and the for- 
mation of curd in an infant's stomach is one of the most common causes of irri- 
tation, and also of nausea, colic, and diarrhea. It is highly desirable that this 
condition should be avoided, and attempts have been made to convert the casein 
of the milk into a peptone, or some soluble form of protein, before feeding. This 
process is called peptonizing the milk, and affects the casein as a diastatic 
ferment does starch. In other words, a diastatic ferment converts starch into 
a soluble form, sugar, and a peptonizing ferment converts the casein into a 
soluble form and thus makes it more readily digestible. It must be borne in 
mind, however, that the predigestion of any food is not a natural process. The 
functions of the body are strong and vigorous in proportion as they are legiti- 
mately exercised, and the feeding of a predigested food for any length of time 
cannot fail to impair the digestive organs. For this reason a predigested food 
should not be used except in cases of disease where it is necessary to tide over an 
abnormal condition in order that strength and health may be regained. In 
other words, it would be a mistake to feed a healthy infant any food modified 
in such a way as to prevent its digestive organs from performing their normal 
phvsiological function. Pritchard opposes the indiscriminate use of predi- 
gested or peptonized milk on these grounds, admitting, however, that it has 
some value in acute gastro-intestinal derangements or for short periods of time. 

Commercial Literature and Opinions. — When it is considered that so 
much of the literature on infant feeding has been written for commercial pur- 
poses, and when it is further understood that the highest skill of the advertiser 
is employed both in wording the praises of infants' foods and in securing 
proper pictorial illustrations of their results, it is plain that the pubhc may be 
misled in many instances. The only safe course in such matters is to have 
recourse to the medical profession, and to that part of it which is distinctly 
removed from any commercial interests in the subject. A physician may be 
very learned, very skilful, and highly appreciated by the people of the community 
in which he resides, and yet be biased if he is financially interested in an 
infant food or connected in any way with trade therein. Happily there are 
many hundreds of expert physicians who understand the subject of nutrition 
and who give their time to its study who have no interest of any kind, of a 
financial nature, in any infants' or invalids' foods. Their opinions for this 
reason are the more valuable. All statements concerning the science of infant 
feeding or the art of preparing infants' foods should he studied with a view 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 52 1 

to showing their origin and motive in order that the reader may give to each 
of the methods described a proper consideration and confidence. 

Fundamental Principles Governing Infant Nutrition. — Dr. Chapin 
has made some pertinent observations on this subject. In the "Journal of the 
American Medical Association" for September i8, 1909, page 907, he says: 

In reference to the infant's nutrition, we have always to deal with milk in 
some form, as biology shows that this is always the primary and elemental 
food mixture, containing in easily assimilable form all the food principles. 
While the different manipulations required to make various milks, or other forms 
of food, acceptable to the infant's stomach constitute the art of infant feeding, 
before any of these details can be accepted as scientific and thus of permanent 
utility, it must be decided how far they are in accordance with biologic laws. 
Biology must thus finally decide both the possibilities and limitiations of every 
method that is advanced. This will call for a knowledge of the structure and 
functions of the various digestive tracts in connection with the peculiar char- 
acteristics of the milk early furnished to each species. This study will show 
not only how far different milks are interchangeable, but also throw light on 
the various manipulations that aim to make them so. 

A chemical analysis of milk will show the ingredients of this fluid, and, to a 
certain extent, their potential food values from their quantitative amount. 
There is something l^eyond this, however, that chemistry cannot explain. 
While the fats and carbohydrates in their composition and reaction to the di- 
gestive secretions are a good deal alike in different milks, the proteins are es- 
sentially different. Chemistry alone can npt explain this phenomenon. We 
must study the reaction of the protein to the digestive secretions, and then 
examine such reactions in relation to the growth and development of the 
digestive tract — in other words, investigate the question biologically before 
we can understand the problem. 

A certain portion of the protein of all milks coagulates on coming in contact with 
rennin or rennin and acid, but the manner and extent of this coagulation stands 
in a direct relation to the proper evolution of the digestive tract of the animal. 

The scientific principles involved in infant feeding are few and simple. The 
methods of applying them are many and may be as simple or as complex 
as one desires to make them. The point ever to be kept in mind is: What 
is the effect of a proposed method and does it apply correct scientific principles? 
Many of the methods that have been proposed are unscientific when employed 
as routine measures, although they may be scientific under certain conditions; 
and methods that may be scientific as routine measures may be unscientific 
when applied to abnormal conditions. 

Various methods of preparing food have been well worked out and simplified, 
but they will be of little value to the physician unless he knows why, and how, 
and when to use them. In this way only can scientific methods prevail. In- 
fant feeding can only become scientific by being placed in line with the methods 
of science in general. 

MODIFIED MILK. 
General Considerations. — The first important point in this connection 
is that the milk should be from a healthy cow which is kept in a sanitary con- 



522 infants' and invalids' foods. 

dition, and that it should be drawn and handled in a thoroughly sanitary 
way. The proper methods of preparing milk are now well established as a prac- 
tical result of modern sanitary theories. Inasmuch as the cow's milk is not chem- 
ically identical with mother's milk it is often advisable, especially in the case 
of infants in bad health, to modify the cow's milk so as to bring it more nearly 
in harmony with the composition of mother's milk. Although the same ele- 
ments appear in the milk of practically all mammals, they are not distributed in 
the same proportions, nor do they have exactly the same dietetic and same 
physiological value. It does not follow that even if cow's milk is so modified 
as to chemically consist of the same general food elements present in the same 
proportions as in mother's milk, that such modified milk will have the same 
nutritive and physiological effects. In fact, experience shows that it is not pos- 
sible for man to prepare a food which has exactly the same properties as that 
which nature provides. But, at least, one may use sanitary methods, as well as 
scientific principles, in the modification of milk. 

It is well known that cow's milk contains more protein and less milk sugar 
than the normal milk of woman; hence the most natural modification is to 
bring the cow's milk into nearer relationship to the natural milk which the 
infant demands. When this is done under scientific principles, and according 
to the directions furnished by competent physicians, or physiologists, there is 
no objection to the modification if it is accomplished without the exposure of 
the milk to bacterial and other contamination. The addition of other products 
of any kind to milk in its preparation for infants' use cannot be generally rec- 
ommended. There are times, however, when the use of an extraneous body 
may prove beneficial, l^ut a competent physician should decide when such 
chemical modification is desirable. 

Reasons for Modifying Milk. — By the term milk alone is meant cow's 
milk unless some other is specified. The reasons for modifying any other 
milk to resemble mother's milk are found in general in the following prin- 
ciples: 

The percentage of protein should be diminished in cow's milk because an 
infant only needs milk with a low percentage, such as it gets in the milk of its 
mother. While a higher percentage of nitrogen may not do any injury if the 
digestive functions of the infant are particularly good, the ingestion of excessive 
quantities of nitrogen usually produces disturbances, and the whole organism 
as well as the stomach may be injured. This injury is first made known by loss 
of appetite, followed by colic, sleeplessness, irritability, and other symptoms. 

It is important also that the milk have plenty of substances rich in phos- 
phorus, such as nuclein and lecithin. Mother's milk is usually richer in these 
substances than cow's milk, and in the dilution of cow's milk there is naturally 
a dilution of those substances rich in available phosphorus. It is hardly ad- 
visable to add artificially prepared nuclein and lecithin, because they are 



MODIFICATION BY THE ADDITION OF SUBSTITUTES NOT MILK. 523 

less digestil)le than the natural constituents. In fact, it has been founci by 
experience that if it is not possible to modify the cow's milk, it may be diluted 
with water free from any harmful germs. It is a remarkable fact that while a 
child may not thrive on whole cow's milk, it may thrive quite well on whole 
cow's milk diluted, without any other modification. Hence, in cases of irrita- 
bility of the stomach of the infant which is fed other milk, it is advisable 
in practically every case to dilute it with water if it cannot be modified in any 
other way. The ingestion of more of any kind of food than the child requires 
places upon its organism, which is far from being able to bear any increased 
burdens at this period of life, the duty of digesting, oxidizing, and excreting 
excessive quantities of materials. Therefore children should not be heavily 
fed to make them fat. Although plumpness is regarded by most people as an 
indication of health, it may be, on the contrary, a premonition of disease. 
. The Addition of Milk Sugar. — The simplest modification of milk, aside 
from its dilution with water, consists in the addition of milk sugar, and in 
diluting cow's milk it is advisable always to add milk sugar if no other change 
is made. In this way a closer approximation will be made to the mother's 
milk than can possibly be secured by the use of water alone. A great many 
infants are successfully fed with mixtures of this kind and have a normal 
growth. In all cases the milk, the sugar, and the water which are used must 
be as free from bacteria as possible. In oilier words, the milk must be fresh, 
the milk sugar perfectly sterile, and the water practically sterile. 

Experience has shown that artificially fed children do not digest their meals 
as rapidly as those fed mother's milk. If, for instance, it requires two hours 
to empty the stomach of a child fed mother's milk, it usually requires three 
hoiu-s if artificial feeding is practiced. 

The Addition of Alkalies to Milk. — It is a common practice to give alkaU 
in some form to the child, especially if it is living on other than its mother's 
milk. Limewater is the form of alkali most commonly prescribed. Cow's 
milk, if kept for any length of time, causes an acid reaction, and presumably 
the addition of the alkali is for the purpose of correcting this acidity. In the 
case of the healthy child, where the digestion is not disordered, it is doubtful 
whether the addition of the extra amount of alkali is warranted.. It may be 
presumed that nature knows best the character of the food the infant should 
have, and while it is true that the mother's milk is slightlv more alkaline, as 
a rule, than that of the cow, this does not warrant tampering with so vital a 
substance as an infant's food with chemicals of the character described. 
Doubtless, however, there are conditions of disordered digestion and disease 
in which the administration of an alkali in the form of limewater or citrate 
of lime may be recommended. 

Modification by the Addition of Substitutes not Milk. — This method 
of modification, it seems to me, is one which should be regarded with suspicion. 



524 infants' and invalids' foods. 

There are many preparations sold on the market which are not intended to be 
used alone as infants' foods, but to be employed in modifying milk. They 
consist of various elements, and are usually either preparations cf milk sugar, 
which may be sold under some fancy name, or preparations cf malt or other 
cereals in which starch has been subjected to diastatic action and has been 
partially converted into maltose and intermediate products. There is always 
a question as to the desirability of using bodies of this kind. It is true that milk 
sugar is one of the most common additions to milk in the way cf mcdificalicn, 
and maltose is a sugar made by natural means and is probably as digestible 
as any other sugar not natural to milk. For instance, I do not think there 
would be anything to choose in healthfulness between adding maltose or adding 
cane sugar to the milk, for the purpose of modifying it to meet some par- 
ticular need of the infant. 

Attention should also be called in such cases to the possible bacterial infec- 
tion of these foreign modifiers. While it is true that these foods are prepared 
usually with the aid of heat, they are not always perfectly protected subse- 
quently against bacterial infection. Such infection is naturally not so much 
to be feared as that which comes from the use of milk of unknown composi- 
tion and history. Above all, warning should be given against methods of 
modifying cow's milk at home which are given in the interest of any particu- 
lar product. Such advice, even if good in itself, is not always applicable be- 
cause it is not adapted to the particular case in question. For instance, a 
modification of milk which was excellent for one condition of child growth or 
for a certain child, might be entirely unfitted for use under other conditions of 
growth or with another child. The particular object, of course, of such direc- 
tions for modification is the sale of the modifier, and as there are no better 
modifiers than milk sugar and barley malt, these can be kept at home at much 
less expense than by purchasing them under a fancy name. Many of these 
directions for the home modification of milk advise the use of either milk sugar 
or a malt product, and in that respect the advice is sound, as a rule, but that 
any particular modification can suit any particular case is a matter which must 
be determined by the observation of the child under feeding, either by wise 
parents or by a competent physician. I use the word competent, not with the 
intention of throwing any doubt upon the general competency of the profes- 
sion, but especially with reference to the physician who has made a specialty 
of the science of nutrition, a branch of learning which, unfortunately, is not 
so extensively taught in medical schools as it should be. 

Difficulties of Home Modification of Milk. — Whenever possible the 
milk should be modified at home. There are many difficulties, however, con- 
nected with this problem which must be considered. In the first place, the 
great majority of parents must purchase the milk, so that they do not know 
its character and know less of its composition. In case the milk is produced 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND THE VALUE OF INFANTS' FOODS. 525 

at home, the task is an easier one. It would be possible in such a case to select 
a healthy cow and ascertain by a few analyses the composition of her milk. 
It may be assumed that a cow in a state of health, and with feed which is 
reasonably constant in character and quality, produces a milk of reasonably 
constant composition. Hence, if one modification could be successfully se- 
cured, similar treatment on other days would secure a similar result. This 
is the only case, unless a certified milk of known composition can be bought, 
in which it would be perfectly safe to attempt to modify the milk at home. 
For those who cannot secure these conditions there should be modifying es- 
tablishments, under the control of disinterested persons, furnishing milk 
according to physician's prescriptions and having a certain percentage com- 
position. 

Commercial Formulas for Infants' Foods. — Medical and commercial 
literature are rich in formulas for infant feeding. It should be remembered, 
however, that no matter how honest and efficient physicians and manufac- 
turers may be, their statements, if self-interest be involved, must be accepted 
with discretion. More than that, a general formula cannot meet each indi- 
vidual case. For healthy infants a general formula might do very well, if it is 
a good one, because all healthy babies can digest practically the same charac- 
ter of food; but if the food is intended for an infant that is ill, a formula that 
might be suitable in one kind of disease would prove entirely unfit in another. 
In such a case the only proper method is to have a formula constructed by 
the physician in charge of the patient. Even in this case the study of the 
science of nutrition is so neglected in our medical colleges that the physi- 
cians are not always trained to prepare such formulas. Pure, fresh cow's milk, 
if obtained from a young and healthy animal and properly modified, is to be 
preferred to any preparation made according to formulas or prescriptions gi\'en 
in absentia. 

It is interesting to compare the formulas which are put up by difTerent 
manufacturers. In one book it is stated that the formulas and analyses which 
are given show the great number of modifications of milk that may be made 
for infants of different ages and conditions with a certain advertised food. 
The food so advertised is said to contain no starch and no dried milk or other 
indigestible matter; to be entirely solul^le, and, with fresh milk, to make the 
nearest approach to mother's milk yet produced. Without calling in question 
the excellence of this preparation or the honestv of the manufacturers, it is 
at least desirable not to accept too blindly all the statements made. 

Chemical Composition not a Complete Index to the Value of Infants' 
Foods. — The analytical data alone in connection with infant's food do not 
give reliable indications of its w'orth; as, for instance, a simple statement of 
the percentage of fat, protein, carbohydrates, salts, and water which are present 
in the prepared food and in the mother's milk, does not give any adequate idea 



526 INF.-^'TS' AND invalids' FOODS. 

of the relative degree of digestibility. Presumably, the fat which is in an 
infant's artificial food, as well as the other ingredients, should correspond as 
nearly as possible in character to the fat of human milk. It is certain that the 
milk of other mammals corresponds more nearly in the character of its \arious 
ingredients to the milk of the human animal than w^ould similar foods de- 
rived from other sources, the carbohydrate, one of the universal constitutents 
of the milk of all mammals, being milk sugar, is practically of the same con- 
stitution in all cases. The protein is also practically the same, although it 
varies greatly in the amount and in the relative quantities of the different 
kinds of protein which are found in the milk. The mineral matters are largely 
of the same kind though also differing in amount. Hence in the consideration 
of analytical data in the judgment of milk, it is not sufficient merely to know 
that the composition of the milk approximates that of the milk of the infant's 
mother; one must also know whether the various elements making up this 
milk in the proportions given are similar in constitution to those which exist 
in its natural food. For instance, the following analysis is given in one of the 
advertisements of an infant's food for infants under one month of age: 

Percent. 

Fat, 0.93 

Proteids. 1-03 

Carbohydrates (no starch), 231 

Saks, 0.24 

Water, - 95-49 

Total, 100.00 

This analysis corresponds very closely to the composition of many modified 
milks which infants under one month of age get. It is made partially of milk, 
with a considerable quantity of water added to it, and a few grams of a well- 
known infant's food. The analysis is given, not for the purpose of condemning 
this food, nor of expressing any opinion concerning it, but simply to show that 
the analysis is not the sole basis of judgment. 

In the same pamphlet the following analysis is given of a food intended for 
infants over six months of age: 

Pereenl. 

Fat, 401 

Proteids, 3-23 

Carbohydrates (no starch), 6.99 

Saks, 0.74 

Water, 85.03 

Total, 1 - 100.00 

This analvsis may well pass for that of a good rich cow's milk, were it not 
that the carbohydrates are somewhat higher than would be normal. It is, 
however, a compound made from dilute cream, milk, water and a solid in- 



METHOD OF DISTRIBUTING CLEAN AND SCIENTIFICALLY MODIFIED MILK. 527 

fant's food. The carbohydrates are composed largely of other substances 
than milk sugar. An infants' food of this kind might give most excellent re- 
sults in some cases, and not in others. 

A Practical Method of Distributing Clean and Scientifically Modified 
Milk. — There are many organizations in the United States having for their 
object the securing of pure milk for infants. There is no disposition to dis- 
criminate in regard to the efficiency of any of them, but it is of interest to give 
a method of procedure which is representative of work of this kind. The 
Babies' Hospital Milk Dispensary of Newark, New Jersey, may be used as 
an illustration. This dispensary has now been in operation nine years. Dur- 
ing this time, httle by little, the work has been perfected, the organization 
completed, and many improvements have been suggested and put into opera- 
tion in connection with this charity. At the beginning of the tenth year the 
work of this dispensary is aided by a committee consisting of representatives 
of several philanthropic and charitable organizations in the city. This com- 
mittee is known as the Joint Committee on the Summer Care of Babies, cooper- 
ating with the Babies' Hospital Milk Dispensary for a larger distribution of 
pasteurized milk to the infants of the poor, from milk stations conducted at 
several points, in order to place wholesome milk within the reach of all. Dur- 
ing the nine years of service the milk dispensary has distributed 1,441,126 
bottles of milk, and has fed over 3000 babies. The first year of its activity it 
sent out 66,000 bottles, and the ninth year 258,000 bottles. 

Committee Formulas for Modifying Milk. — This committee has constructed 
six formulas for the modification of milk. In the case of sick babies these 
compounds may be diluted with either boiled water or sterilized cereal water, 
in order that the milk which has been pasteurized may not become reinfected. 

Mixture No. i. (From birth to two months, and for starting feeble cases.) 

Percent. 

Milk fat, i.oo 

Albuminoids, i .00 

Carbohydrates, 5-5° 

Eight bottles, of 4 oz. each, per day. 

Mixture No. 2. (Two to four and one-half months.) 

Percent. 

Milk fat, 2.00 

Albuminoids, i-oo 

Carbohydrates, - 6.00 

Seven bottles of 5 oz. each. 

Mixture No. 3. (Four and one-half to six months.) 

Percent. 

Milk fat, 2>-oo 

Albuminoids, i-S*^ 

Carbohydrates, 6.00 

Six bottles of 6 oz. each. 



528 infants' and invalids' foods. 

Mixture No. 4. (Six to nine months and until weaning.) 

Percent. 

Milk fat, 3.50 

Albuminoids, 2.00 

Carbohydrates, 6.50 

Six bottles of 8 oz. each. 

Mixture No. 5. (Nine to twelve months and during second year.) 

Percent. 

Milk fat, , 4-00 

Albuminoids, 3.00 

Carboliydrates, 4.50 

Five bottles of 8 oz. each. 

Mixture No. 6. (For temporary use with infants having fever or diarrhea.) 

Percent. 

Milk fat, 0.25 

Milk proteids, i .00 

Milk serum , 25 .00 

Cereal water, 50.00 

Eight bottles of 4 oz. each (to be diluted for infants under six months). 

Directions for Use. — The milk is adjusted to the requirements of normal 
infants during the year, the six mixtures as described being furnished, and 
diluted for sick babies by adding boiled water or boiled cereal water. It is not 
intended that a full bottle shall be given to a baby that is just beginning the 
age periods indicated in the formulary. A small charge is made for this milk 
so that it is not a complete charity. The milk furnished by the committee is 
not certified milk, but is good milk which is carefully pasteurized, and, there- 
fore, has both the merits and demerits which attach to pasteurized milk. 

Straus Laboratory Formulas. — The following formulas for modifying 
milk are recommended by the Straus Laboratories: 

First to Fourth Week: 

f ounce of 16 percent cream. 
3 ounces of full milk. 
19 ounces of water. 
1^ ounces of limewater. 
1 1 ounces of milk sugar. 
This mixture fills 8 bottles — each to contain 3 ounces. Feed two and one-half 
hours apart. 

First to Third Month: 

x\ ounces of 16 percent cream. 
3 ounces of full milk. 
13 ounces of water. 
^ ounce of limewater. 
I ounce of milk sugar. 
This mixture fills 6 bottles — each to contain 3 ounces. Feed three hours apart. 

Second to Sixth Month: 

18 ounces of full milk. 
16^ ounces of water. 

i\ ounces of limewater. 

li ounces of milk sugar. 
This mixture fills 6 bottles — each to contain 6 ounces. Feed three hours apart. 



PREPARATION OF MILK FOR INFANT FEEDING AT A LONDON HOSPITAL. 529 

Third to Seventh Month: 

18 ounces of full milk. 
18 ounces of barley water. 

1 ounce of cane sugar. 

20 grains of table salt (less than \ teaspoonful). 

This mixture tills 6 bottles — each to contain 6 ounces. Feed three hours apart. 

Seventh to Ninth Month: 

32 ounces of full milk. 
16 ounces of barley water. 

2 ounces of milk sugar. 

This mixture fills 6 bottles — each to contain 8 ounces. Feed three hours apart. 

After Ninth Mouth: 

Full pasteurized milk, 8 ounces every four hours. 

To make one quart of Oat or Barley Water. — Boil 2 tablespoonfuls of the flour in a 
quart of water until it is reduced to half the quantity; then add sufficient water 
to make up the quart. 

Preparation of Milk for Infant Feeding at a London Hospital. — One 

of the best descriptions of the preparation of milk for infant feeding, especially 
for the notirishment of sick infants, is that found in the report prepared by Dr. 
Ralph Vincent, Senior Physician to the Infant's Hospital, Westminster, 
London. Dr. Vincent eliminates from possible infants' foods the artificial 
preparations which are so often recommended for that purpose, and also 
advises that even in the case of growing children a milk suitable for infants 
should constitute a large proportion of the daily food. Usually cow's milk is 
the only kind available, the supply of mare's, goat's, or asses' milk being so 
limited as to be practically excluded from commercial considerations. 

Importance of Adequate Nourishment. — Attention is called in this connection 
to the especial necessity of insuring that growing children are well nourished 
in order that pathogenic organisms may be speedily overcome. It is a well- 
known fact that healthy children make a speedy and complete recovery from 
infectious diseases such as scarlet fever or measles, and often seem better after 
the attack than before, while in the case of poorly nourished children most 
serious and continuing results follow, such as deafness, rickets, and other 
ailments. Even special and general tuberculosis is not an imusual complica- 
tion when the child's vitality is not sufficient to repel the invasion of the hostile 
pathogenic germs. 

Quality of Original Milk. — The character of the milk employed in the In- 
fant's Hospital is described by Dr. Vincent somewhat as follows.^ The milk 
is obtained from a farm which is entirely under the control of the authorities 
of the hospital. The milking shed is apart from any other stable and the cows 
are in it only during the milking. The attendants are required to sterilize 
their hands and clothing and to use sterilized vessels, while the cows are kept 
so clean that no possible filth of any kind can fall into the pail during the 
process of milking. The cows are specifically selected for their milk-giving 
35 



53° 



infants' and invalid's foods. 



qualities, Jerseys and Guernseys which produce excessive amounts of fat, 
being excluded from the herd. They are fed well-balanced rations of whole- 
some feed from which all slops, oil-cake, brewers' grains, and other questionable 
feeds are excluded. Grass, hay, pea-meal, bean-meal, and mangolds are some 
of the chief articles used for food, the greatest care being exercised to prevent 
an undue proportion of roots and green food, as these should be present only 
in sufficient quantities to make the rest of the food palatable and wholesome. 

Care of Milk. — As has already been stated, the milking is conducted as 
nearly as possible on the principles of aseptic surgery. As soon as the milk is 
drawn it is separated .into fat-free milk and- cream by appropriate machinery. 
The two products are immediately cooled to 38° F. and placed in sterilized 
containers. These containers are constructed throughout with a double wall. 
Between the outer and inner walls is a layer of air, so that the temperature 
of the milk rises very slowly during transportation. The milk is received at 
the hospital within four hours after the milking and is there subjected to sys- 
tematic bacteriological and microscopical tests. 

A remarkable fact in connection with the production of this milk is that the 
records of expenditure shown by careful bookkeeping indicate that the total 
cost to the hospital is 25 percent less than the ordinary retail price of milk in 
London. 

Composition oj Milk. — Vincent gives the comparative composition of human 
milk and cow's milk as ascertained at the Westminster Hospital as follows: 

Human Milk. Ccws' Milk. 
Percent. Percent. 

Fat 4.00 4.00 

Milk sugar, 7.00 4.50 

Proteins, 1.50 3.50 

Mineral salts 0.25 0.75 

It is seen that the mere dilution of cow's milk with water fails utterly to 
produce a milk which approaches in composition the average of human milk. 
It is evident that the relative composition of a diluted milk is exactly the same 
as it was before, that is, the ratio of the proteins to the milk sugar, the fat, and 
the mineral salts, or of any one of these four to the other three, is not changed. 
But in order to simulate mothers' milk the ratio must be changed in such a 
way that while the fat remains practically the same, there may be a marked 
change in the ratio of the other three constituents, namely, milk sugar, pro- 
teins, and mineral salts. Vincent distinguishes the proteins as whey-proteins 
and caseinogen, and gives the following proportions of the percentages of 
each in human and cows' milk: 

Human Milk. Cows' Milk. 
Percent. Percent. 

Whey-proteins i .00 i.oo 

Caseinogen, 0.50 2.50 

Total, 1.50 3.50 



PREPARATION OF MILK FOR INFANT FEEDING AT A LONDON HOSPITAL. 53 1 

It is seen that in a given quantity of human milk the whey-proteins will l)e 
very much in excess of the caseinogen, almost or quite double, while the re- 
verse of this is true in cow's milk, where the proportionate quantity of caseino- 
gen is more than twice that of the whey-proteins. The caseinogen is consid- 
ered far less digestible than the whe}'-proteins, hence the additional necessity 
of some modification of the cows' milk to meet the demands of the infant. 

Principle oj Modification. — The principle of modification of the milk at 
the Westminster Plospital is a strict adherence to a standard human milk in 
its natural condition. Boiling, pasteurizing, or cooking the milk in any wav 
is wholly forbidden. Sterilization is applied to the vessels in which the milk 
is contained, but not to the milk itself. In modifying the milk it is necessary 
to have certain standard solutions which are available for instant use. Stan- 
dard solution No. i is standard cream diluted with fat-free milk so as to con- 
tain 32 percent of butter fat. The fat-free milk obtained by the separation 
previously mentioned is standard solution. No. 2; standard solution No. 3 is 
saturated solution of calcium hydrate free of calcium chlorid; standard 
solution No. 4 is a milk-sugar solution containing 20 percent of lactose; stan- 
dard solution No. 5 is whey prepared from precipitating the caseinogen from fat- 
free milk; standard solution No. 6 is sterile water obtained by filtering water 
through a Pasteur-Chamberland filter. Each of these standard solutions is placed 
in a sterilized metal tank partially surrounded with ice, and the milk is made by 
taking a specific quantity from each of the tanks to till a given prescription. 

Sample Prescription. — The prescriptions are of course varied according 
to the specific needs of each infant. 

The following is a sample prescription, showing the amounts of each of the 
standard solutions prescribed in one case: 

Ward I, Infant No. 24 

Percent. 

Fat, 2.00 

Lactose, 6.50 

Whey-proteins, 0.75 

Caseinogen, 0.25 

Alkalinity,* '. 5.00 

Ten tubes each of 4 oz. 

In the laboratory the prescription is translated into actual amounts. 
The following is the translation of the above prescription: 

Cubic 
Gentimeters. 

Cream (32 percent), 75 

Lactose solution (20 percent), 121 

Whey, 858 

Fat-free milk, 59 

Limewater, 60 

Water, 27 

* Expression "alkalinity 5 percent" indicates that 5 percent of the total volume of the 
mixture consists of standard solution No. 3. 



532 infants' and invalids' foods. 

Storage oj Milk. — Attention is called to the importance of permitting; as 
little change as possible to take place in the milk from the time of the milking 
until it is consumed by the infant. For this reason the storage of the milk and 
of the standard solutions made therefrom should be at a low temperature 
approaching that of the freezing-point of water. In this way the changes 
which would naturally take place due to growth of bacteria at room tempera- 
ture are kept at a minimum. It is unnecessary to say that before the modified 
milk, after preparation, is given to the infant it should l)e restored to the nor- 
mal temperature of the human body, or a little above, that is, to about ioo° F. 



PRESERVATION OF MILK. 

Introduction. — It has been stated already that the ideal food for children 
deprived of nature's supply is a milk properly balanced in its nutritive ele- 
ments to suit the organism of the child, and which is as fresh from the dairy 
where it was produced as possible. There are many cases, however, in which 
it becomes necessary to use milk which cannot possibly be fresh. For ex- 
ample, there are localities where fresh milk cannot be obtained, and long 
journeys by sea and land may render fresh milk inaccessible. Hence it is 
necessary to consider the art of preserving 'milk in order to meet such exig- 
encies and emergencies. While no preserved product is to be preferred to the 
fresh milk, there are some methods which injure the character of the milk so 
little as to be preferred to others in which greater dangers from preservation 
must be expected. 

Cold Storage. — Allusion has already been made to the keeping of milk by 
cold storage. This is Ijy far the best method when the milk is to be kept only 
a few hours, or at most over a day. Fresh, sweet, clean milk may be cold 
stored at or near the freezing-point for twenty-four or even forty-eight hours 
and still be suitable for feeding to infants after it is warmed to the proper 
temperature. Fortunately, the very exigencies which require the preserving 
of milk are those which would preclude the possibilities of preserving it at 
least for a longer period than that mentioned. A mother traveling on a railway 
train might well pack the milk for her infant with ice and carry it with her, 
replacing the ice from time to time as it melted. In this way, through a journey 
of twenty-four hours, she could have the milk which she knows to be pure, 
at all times, removing a small portion of it now and then from its container 
and warming it to the proper temperature for feeding the child. A longer 
period than twent\--four hours for keeping milk by cold storage should not be 
advised. 

Chemical Preservatives. — Many attempts have been made to keep milk 
fresh by means of chemical preservatives. By the term chemical preserva- 
tives is meant those substances which, without having in themselves any 



CONDENSED MILK. 533 

marked taste or odor, are capable of paralyzing or inhibiting bacterial action, 
or of actually killing the bacteria, and thus preventing the ordinary fermenta- 
tive and putrefactive processes. Among the substances which are used for 
this purpose in milk, formaldehyde and boron compounds have been most 
common. Practically all nations have, by legislation or judicial decision, pro- 
hibited the use of these preservatives in milk, though some permit the presence 
of boron in other substances. In this country the presence of borax and for- 
maldehyde is forbidden in milk, but benzoate of soda may be used in any 
quantity desired by the manufacturers, provided its presence and the amount 
employed be stated on the label. Fortunately, benzoate of soda is an extremely 
poor preservative for milk, since milk is an alkaline body, and as such it does 
not tend to decompose the benzoate of soda and set the benzoic acid free, and 
it is only free benzoic acid which is very active as a preserving agent. In so 
far as I know, very little use has been made by milk producers and dealers 
of the permission granted to use this chemical. In point of fact, there is very 
little adulteration of milk with chemical preservatives in the United States. 
National, State and municipal laws have been so well drawn and so vigorously 
executed as to practically put a stop to this objectionable practice. Whatever 
may be true of the ability of adults to tolerate a certain amount of chemicals 
in their food, it must be admitted that the infant is not thus constituted. No 
matter what the chemical may be, nor what ^the opinion or experience may be 
concerning its action upon health, there are few who have the temerity to urge 
either the unrestricted, or even the restricted, use of chemical preservatives in 
milk. 

Condensed Milk. — Owing to the difficulty, in many cases, of securing 
fresh milk for the use of infants, condensed milk has been very widely recom- 
mended as a substitute. There are several difficulties which arise in connection 
with the use of condensed milk for children instead of the fresh milk which 
they naturally should have. In the first place, one should be certain that the 
condensed milk is made from fresh milk produced by healthy cows. It is en- 
tirely possible to conceive of a situation where milk is delivered to the conden- 
sory which is unfit for infants' food. Milk coming from unsanitary dairies, 
or from diseased cows, or which is handled in an unsanitary manner, or which 
is kept too long or at too high a temperature becomes unfit for consumption by 
infants, and, therefore, totally unfit for condensation if the condensed product 
is to be consumed by infants. If condensed milk is to be made part of an in- 
fant's diet, it should be produced from a certifiecl fresh milk free from every 
possible disease germ, transported to the condensory in the most sanitary 
manner, and evaporated in the shortest possible time after reception. 'V\'hile 
it is idle to claim that such a condensed food is as good for the infant as the 
fresh article would have been, it must be admitted that such a product would 
be preferable to the indiscriminate fresh milk supplies of our towns and cities.. 



534 



infants' and invalids' foods. 



In fad, for congested centers where it is difficult to secure fresh milk at all, I 
think no one would doubt that a properly manufactured condensed milk would 
be a most helpful sul)stitute. A milk prepared in this way and securel}- canned 
and sterilized will keep for a limited time, especially if held in a cold place, 
without developing any undesirable qualities. In this condition the milk could 
be much more easily transported and delivered to congested centers than could 
fresh milk. In my opinion, it would be a boon to the children of the poor in 
our large cities if an abundant supply of properly prepared condensed milk 
could be secured for them. I say this without in any way departing from the 
opinion, which I think is a correct one, that, if possible, perfectly fresh milk 
should always be secured. But such possibilities do not offer themselves to 
poorer residents of densely populated cities, and hence it seems to me that a 
properly certified condensed milk would prove a great blessing in such cir- 
cumstances. Pritchard, however, maintains that fresh milk is the thing to be 
desired in all cases for heakhy infants, and that the more milk is manipulated, 
the more it loses some subtle quality, the loss being due principally to the 
destruction of the proteolytic and fat-splitting ferments. He does not attach 
any value whatever to dried or condensed milk as a food for infants; if the 
fat in the milk has been reduced by water or otherwise, he advises the use of the 
emulsions of cod-liver oil, or of olive or other vegetable oils. 

Composition of Condensed Milks. — The composition of condensed milk is 
■determined by the character of the fresh milk. If the fresh contains a large 
percentage of fat, the condensed product will show a preponderance of that 
constituent. If, on the other hand, the fat is abnormally low, then the finished 
product w ill have the same deficiency, and the same is true of each of the con- 
stituents of the milk. 

The following analyses of four different brands of evaporated or unsweetened 
condensed milk and two brands of sweetened condensed milk show the typical 
composition of such products: 

EVAPORATED OR UNSWEETENED CONDENSED MILKS. 



Constituents. 



Water, 

Fat, 

Proteins, 

Ash, 

Lactose by difference, 

Lactose by copper reduction 
Undetermined, 

Total solids, 

Fat in solids, , 

Ratio of proteins to fat,. . . . , 



72.03 
8.42 
7.10 
1.68 

10.77 



100.00 

27.97 

30.10 

[ : 1. 18 



70.26 
8.07 

7-83 
1.44 

10.85 
0.65 



29.74 
30.00 
: 1. 15 



Percent. 



72.17 
8.09 
7.25 
1.67 

10.82 



Percent. 



71-34 
8.18 
7.29 

1-59 

10.83 
0.77 



27.83 
29.07 



28.66 
28.58 
: 1. 12 



CONDENSED MILK. 535 

SWEETENED CONDENSED MILKS. 

Percent. Percent. 

Water, 26.87 24.90 

Fat, 9.82 10.30 

Proteins, 8.04 8.77 

Lactose by difference, 11. 11 11. 18* 

Sucrose, 42.22 42.12 

Ash, 1 .92 1 .85 

Undetermined, . . 0.88 

100.00 100.00 

Total solids, 73-i3 7S-io 

Milk solids, 3o-9i 32-98 

Fat in milk solids, 31-77 Z'^-'^Z 

Ratio of proteins to fat, i : 1.22 i : 1.17 

It is a very common practice to add sugar to the milk at the time of its con- 
densation, in order to preserve it more readily. Such products are known as 
sweetened condensed milks. The usual quantity of sugar used is about 40 
pounds to ICO of the condensed product. The added cane sugar is usually 
in greater quantity than the natural milk sugar. I cannot see any advantage, 
in so far as infant feeding is concerned, in using a sweetened condensed milk 
rather than a plain product, \^'hile there is no positive evidence that sugar is 
hurtful, it at least is not natiu-al. The infant fed at the breast would probably 
not consume any cane sugar at all, and the only sugar it would have would be 
the milk sugar of its mother's milk. To add a larger quantity of another sugar, 
while it v^'ould not harm adults, and possibly might not injure infants, would 
certainlv modifv the natural sustenance of the child to a marked degree. For 
this reason alone the sweetened condensed milks would not be desirable for 
infant nutrition. 

Density of Condensed Milk. — An important factor in regard to the purchas- 
ing of condensed milk is found in the fact that it does not always have a uni- 
form densitv. The national standard for condensed milk requires that it shall 
contain not less than 28 percent of solid matter, while many of the milks found 
upon the market contain decidedly less than this amount., To the poor man 
especially, who buys his condensed milk at a high price, it is of some impor- 
tance to know whether he gets a sufficiently condensed article, or whether 
he is buying a large amount of water. 

Diffinilfies of Making Condensed ]\filk. — Many manufacturers claim that 
it is difficult, and sometimes quite impossible, to produce a condensed milk 
Avith a content of 28 percent of solid matter. It is claimed that at such a 
degree of condensation a crystalline, sandy product separates after standing 
for some time, presumably composed largely of citrate of lime, which gives 
to the milk a bad appearance and prejudices the consumer agamst its use. 
Without calling into question the good faith of this statement, it may be said 
that many manufacturers do constantly make a condensed milk with 28 per- 

* By copper reduction. 



536 infants' -\nd invalids' foods. 

cent and over of solid matter, and do not have any special difficulty in preserv- 
ing it for a proper length of time. It is true, doubtless, that most highly con- 
densed milks would, in course of time, produce a crystalline deposit of the 
character named, but this would only show that the milk had probably been 
kept longer than is desirable. In the case of condensed milk, the fresher it 
is when used the better. As the supplies of condensed milk are made through- 
out the year, there should be no difficulty in getting a product for consumption 
which is less than three months old. Such samples of recent manufacture 
would doubtless in most cases fail to show a crystalline deposit in any appre- 
cial^le quantity. 

Drying Milk. — The drying of milk and reducing the product to a powder 
has become quite an industry in the United States. Many methods of desic- 
cation have been tried, but the effective ones all depend upon two principles 
— first, rapidity of drying, and, second, drying at comparatively low tempera- 
tures. The object in drying the milk is to remove only the water, so that when 
the same amount of water is added, the milk will be restored practically to its 
normal state. To this end it is necessary that no part of the soluble materials 
of the milk become coagulated in drying; otherwise the addition of water 
would not restore the milk to its former homogeneous state. A certain portion 
of the protein of milk is composed of albumen, and, as is well known, albumen, 
when heated to a temperature which is very much above blood heat, becomes 
solidified or coagulated and is no longer soluble in a menstruum like the 
water of milk. Various forms of apparatus have been devised for drying milk 
at a low temperature. The most common method has been drying in a very 
thin film on metal plates, sometimes in vacuo, the vapor of the water being 
given off rapidly and at a very low temperature. The result is that milk can be 
reduced to a dry state in a short time and without reaching a temperature 
sufficiently high to coagulate the albumen. Such a product when mixed with 
water is practically restored to its original state. 

Another method of drying milk consists in atomizing it under pressure 
and projecting it into a warm chamber the temperature of which is so regu- 
lated that the particles of vapor before they reach the bottom of the drying 
vessel are completely deprived of their water. The milk is thus reduced at 
once to a state of fine subdivision. When treated in this way the milk does not 
reach a temperature sufficiently high to coagulate its albumen, and, as in the 
other process, it is readily restored to practically its original condition. 

Keeping Qualities of Milk Powder. — By reason of the amount of fat in the 
milk powder it is quite likely to become rancid if kept for a very long while at 
room temperatures or exposed to the air. A milk powder, therefore, however 
prepared, should be kept in a cool place and out of contact with the air as 
far as is possible, until used. It is very important that it be placed in packages 
which are practically air-tight, in order to prevent this rancidity, in case cold 



PROCESS OF STERILIZATION. 537 

Storage facilities are not at hand. In any case the dried milk powder should 
not be kept for any length of time, l)ut should be consumed as soon as possible 
after it is made. Nevertheless it must be admitted that for purposes of trans- 
portation the milk powder has advantages over any other form of milk. Since 
practically 88 percent of milk is water, it is seen that in so far as transportation 
is concerned, there is great economy in carrying milk powder instead of the 
milk itself. Thus for long journeys on which milk in its natural state cannot 
be secured, and even for railway and steamship travel, dried milk may prove 
useful. In all cases, of course, it is assumed that the milk powder is obtained 
from milk which is derived from healthy cows, under sanitary conditions, 
and is free from anv infection. 



PASTEURIZATION AND STERILIZATION. 

Process of Pasteurization. — The word "pasteurization" is derived from 
the name of the immortal scientist Pasteur, who found that it was not neces- 
sary to kill all the organisms in the milk to keep it fresh for a limited time, 
but that a gentle heat, far below the boiling point of the milk, VNOuld kill prac- 
tically all the organisms which cause the milk to speedily sour and solidify. 
Bodies which are heated to a temperature below that necessary to kill all the 
germs and spores of the germ are said to be pasteurized. In point of fact the 
temperature of pasteurization which is usually employed varies from 130° to 
160° F., which, as is seen, is very much below the boiling point which is always 
employed if complete sterilization is required. The point to be kept in view 
in pasteurizing is, that all parts of the milk shall be heated to the same temper- 
ature. Let us assume that this temperature is 150°. All of the milk then must 
certainly be heated at that temperature probably for about twenty minutes, 
and then rapidly cooled and kept free of infection from the air or other sources. 
Milk thus treated will remain sweet for two or three days, and perhaps in 
many instances, if kept cold, for a longer period. Pasteurization is recom- 
mended by a great majority of hygienists for all milk supplies the origin and 
nature of which are unknown. The objections to pasteurization will be 
mentioned later. It must be admitted, however, in the interest of public 
health, that as the milk supplies of the world are produced at present, espe- 
cially those going to large cities, general pasteurization would be highly 
desirable. 

Process of Sterilization. — As has already been intimated, sterilization 
differs from pasteurization in that the temperature of the milk is raised to the 
boiling point of water, or above. The object of sterilization is to remove com- 
pletely all bacterial life from the milk; not only to kill the bacteria which are 
present, but also any spores which may subsequently develop into bacterial 
activity. Bacteria usually multiply by fission, that is, one bacterium develops 



538 infants' and invalids' foods. 

a constriction which gradually increases until it is cut in two, making two in- 
dividuals, and these in turn undergo the same process, and so on ad infinitum, 
until the development of the growth is stopped by lack of food, changes in 
temperature, or otherwise. Other bacteria are produced by spores, which 
have the same relation to the bacterium as the egg to the chicken. These 
spores are more resistant to heat than the bacteria themselves, and hence the 
heat must be higher or longer continued in order to completely destroy them. 
As has been indicated, sterilization is objectionable in the preservation of 
milk for two reasons, tirst, in that it gives it a bad taste, and, second, that it so 
modifies the structure of the m.ilk as to decrease, to a certain extent, its diges- 
tibility, especially for infants. 

Bacteriological Characteristics of Milk, — There is nothing more impor- 
tant in the subject of infant feeding than the bacteriology of milk, and it may 
properly be considered in connection with the pasteurization and sterilization 
data. Though all possible sanitary precautions may be observed, the number 
of bacteria in milk rapidly increases on standing. Under sanitary conditions 
this increase is a matter of no consequence, up to a certain limit, since the bac- 
teria which are thus introduced are wholly harmless, and have even proved 
beneficial. When milk is secured from healthy cows in a sanitary manner 
and properly handled by chilling and bottling, the bacterial count may be 
usually kept below 10,000 per cubic centimeter. But it is only by the exercise 
of careful supervision that such a condition can be seciu-ed. The ordinary 
milk of commerce often contains millions of bacteria per cubic centimeter 
and sometimes over a hundred million. If these bacteria are wholly harmless, 
such a milk may not prove injurious to a grown-up person, but even harmless 
bacteria, in the ordinary sense of that word, in such numbers in milk given 
to infants, especially if they are very young, may prove extremely detrimental. 
The milk which is secured for infant food should, therefore, always be ob- 
tained in the most sanitary way, and if possible it should contain less than 
10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. 

Milk a Favorable Medium for Bacterial Growth. — There is perhaps no more 
favorable medium for the growth of ordinary bacteria than milk at certain 
temperatures, that is, from 70° to 90° F. Milk is not only an ideal food for 
an infant, but also for a bacterium. In point of fact the latter thri^'es even 
better than the former on a milk diet. The increase in the bacteria in milk in 
favorable circumstances is marvelous; the number in a few hours may grow 
from ]:)ractically none to many millions, so rapidly do they multiply. The 
milk affords ever}- food which the bacterium requires and in the form best 
suited to rapid assimilation. Inasmuch as the bacteria digest their food they 
must put into the milk large quantities of excremental matter, mostly in the 
form of enzyms, which may act as an irritant upon the delicate and sensitive 
coats of the intestinal tract of the infant. The rapidity of growth is very 



BACTERIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MILK. 539 

greatly checked by lowering the temperature; even if not brought under 50°, 
the growth of the bacterial flora is greatly limited. INIilk. may be kept at a 
temperature just above the freezing point for a long time, so greatly does low 
temperature interfere with the growth and reproduction of the bacteria. But 
even under these conditions, although the milk mav not sour, bacterial life 
is by no means vvhclly destroyed, though its character may be profoundly 
modified. Changes of an objectionable nature, so far as infants are concerned, 
go on in milk stored at these low temperatures without gi^■ing any of the ordi- 
nary evidence of decomposition. For this reason it is not advisable to feed 
infants stored milks, that is, those which are stored in the fresh state, without 
pasteurizing or sterilizing. 

Kinds of Organisms in Milk. — Yeasts as well as bacteria grow with great 
rapidity in milk, and the forms which produce acidity, that is, lactic acid, are 
likewise found growing with great vigor. Among the most objectionable forms 
of bacteria in m.ilk are thc^se which produce putrefaction, or, in other words, 
decomposition of the protein bodies of the milk. This putrefaction gives 
rise not only to bad tastes, but to bad odors. Putrefacti\-e bacteria are found 
everywhere, but particularly do they collect around stables, where the soil is 
very rich and where there is much manure. Another bacterium which is 
particularly objectionable in milk is that which produces the sliminess so often 
found. There are also numl:)ers of chromogenic bacteria in milk, which pro- 
duce various shades of blue, red, and yellow. These, fortunately, are not very 
common. Again, the protein may be com-erted into peptone, which is the 
first step toward putrefaction. The conversion of the protein into peptone, if 
it stops there, is not harmful, but it is difficult often to draw the line between 
peptonizing and putrefaction. It would be useless to undertake to give any 
description of a popular character of the bacteria, since this is a subject 
which is extremely technical. 

Bacterial Count of Milk.— It may be asked, and very properly, how can 
anybody count hundreds of thousands or millions of bacteria in a little particle 
of milk, not much more than a dozen drops, which would make a cubic centi- 
meter? The answer is that it is impossible to do so. Bacteria are counted by 
adding some of the substance which is supposed to contain them to a sterile 
dish which contains nutritive material, usuallv of a gelatinous nature, suitable 
for the growth of bacteria. Each bacterium in the added substance grows on 
the surface of this nourishing medium and produces colonies, which can be 
seen with the naked eye. The number of colonies found indicates the number 
of bacteria in the original milk. In order to secure a count, therefore, it is 
necessary to dilute the milk often many times before adding a drop of it to the 
sterilized medium. If milk is diluted a thousand times and a cubic centimeter 
of it is found to contain a hundred organisms, vre only have to multiply the 
hundred by the thousand to get the total number originally present. The 



540 infants' and invalids' foods. 

skilful bacteriologist l>y making a number of trials will be al)le to approximate^ 
with a very great degree of acciuracy, the total number of bacterial organisms 
in the substance with which he is working. 

Result of Pasteurization. — Let us understand at the first that pasteuri- 
zation cannot purify milk. If milk is dirty before pasteurization, it is just as 
dirty afterward, but the greater number of germs which it contains have been 
killed or paralyzed. Fortunately pathogenic germs which are the most ob- 
jectionable ones in milk are quite susceptible to the influence of heat, and are 
quite likely to be destroyed by a proper pasteurization, while other germs which 
are not objectionable may continue to live and develop. The mother who 
feeds her infant on pasteurized milk, assuming that it is properly done, may- 
feel assured that none of the contagious diseases which can be transmitted 
by milk, namely, typhoid fever, tuberculosis, diphtheria, etc., wdll be given to 
the child; but at the same time she may be certain that the nutritive value of 
the milk, if it was low before pasteurization, is even more so afterward since 
it is proven by experience that infants, as a rule, do not thrive so well on pas- 
teurized milk as they do on good milk which has not been pasteurized. One 
great advantage of pasteurization is that the milk thus treated does not have 
the burnt taste which is so objectionable to many people in milks which have 
been subjected to the boiling temperature. Others who are accustomed to 
the taste of boiled milk, however, do not object to it, and in such cases, if 
it is a grown person, it is far better that the milk should be absolutely steril- 
ized. For infant's use, however, I am of the opinion that boiled milk is not 
so wholesome nor so nutritious as pasteurized milk, just as pasteiu-ized milk 
is not so wholesome nor nutritious as perfectly fresh and pure milk. The value 
of pasteurization, however, as a prophylactic precaution, cannot be overes- 
timated. On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that in pasteurized 
milk the organisms which produce sourness and thus give warning of danger 
are likely to be killed, while certain spore-bearing organisms that produce 
putrescence and decay, survive. The presence of these organisms in pas- 
teurized milk is far more objectionable than the presence of the lactic acid 
organisms in unpasteurized milk. In fact, the vigorous growth of the or- 
ganisms that produce sourness may suppress or destroy the activity of those 
organisms that produce decay. 

Pasteurization at Home and under Scientific Control.— Home pas- 
teurization of milk is not advisable if a competent municipal supervision of the 
process can be secured. Municipalities should maintain pasteurizing depots, 
at least for the use of infants, and these should be so supervised that the milk 
entering them is as pure as possible before pasteurization, and is then properly 
pasteurized, cooled, sealed, and prepared for delivery. No better service 
could be rendered by a municipality than to thus make the best of bad condi- 
tions, w'here the milk supplies are not ideal. If the milk is produced at home. 



THE STRAUS HOME PASTEURIZER. 



541 



as is the case on the farm, then pasteurization is rarely necessary, as fresh milk 
can be obtained at all hours for the infant, and should always be used. Even 
at the present time, people living in cities who have places where they could 
keep a cow very commonly secure a cow, or a goat, to provide the milk for 
the infants of the family. This is, of course, advisable if cows and goats can 
be kept under sanitary conditions, but only the very rich are able to do this 
in cities, since there must be yards large enough to secure sufficient ventilation 








INSIDE 

SECTION 

SHOWING 

BRACKET 

FOR 

TRAY 



\3 



Fig. 87. — The Straus Home Pasteurizer. 



and exercise for the animals. The constant confinement of a cow or goat in 
the stall or the stable cannot be regarded in any sense as an ideal condition for 
the production of pure milk. 

The Straus Home Pasteurizer. — A simple method for home pasteuri- 
zation which can be practiced where city supervision fails has been devised 
by Straus. The apparatus is shown in the accompanying illustration. 
The directions for using this pasteurizer are as follows: 



542 infants' and invalids' foods. 

1. Use only fresh, filtered milk, which has been kept cold, and proceed as 
follows: 

2. Set the bottles, after they have been thoroughly cleaned, in the tray, fill 
them to the neck, and put on the corks or patent stoppers. 

3. The pot is then placed on a wooden surface (table or floor) and. filled 
to the three supports (in the pot) with boiling water. 

4. Place tray, with the filled bottles, in the pot so that the bottom of the 
tray rests on the three supports, and put cover on quickly. 

5. After the bottles have been warmed up by the steam for five minutes, 
remove the cover quickly, and turn the tray so that it drops into the water. 
The cover is to be put on again immediately. This manipulation is to be 
made very quickly, so that as little steam as possible can escape. Thus it 
remains for twenty-five minutes. 

6. Now take the tray out of the water and cool the bottles with cold water 
and ice as quickly as possible, and keep them at this low temperature till used. 

7. Before use, warm the milk — in the bottles — to blood heat. Never pour 
it into another vessel. 

8. The milk must not be used for children later than tw-enty-four hours 
after pasteurization. Never use remnants. 

g. The advantages of pasteurization over other systems, such as sterilization 
or boiling, consists in the low'er degree of heat applied, which is sufficient to 
kill all noxious germs, while the nourishing quality and good taste of the milk 
are retained. 

Views of Nathan Straus on Pasteurization. — Mr. Straus has devoted 
much time and money to improving the quality of city shipped milk and 
has established many municipal pasteurizing plants. In a paper prepared 
for the Seventh International Congress of Applied Chemistry he says: 

An epoch in life saving is marked by the assembling in London of the 
Seventh International Congress of Applied Chemistry, for the workers in 
that branch of chemistry which has to do with the purity of foods have won 
the right to celebrate the triumph of their science over commercial g:"eed. 

But my interest in the science of applied chemistry is due to the aid given 
me by your profession in my life work of saving the lives of babies. 

For eighteen years I have done what one man could do to stop the slaughter 
of children. In 1892 I was convinced that infected milk was responsible for 
the excessive infantile death-rates and for the persistence of tuberculosis 
among human beings. 

Forthwith I y)roceeded to put pasteurized milk within the reach of the 
children of New York city. Instant was the response in decreased mortality, 
and conclusive was the demonstration obtained by feeding the city waifs on 
Randall's Island with pasteurized milk, resuUing in the reduction of the death- 
rate from 44 percent to 19.8 percent. Therefore I proceeded to urge both in 
America and in Europe the adoption of pasteurization as a practical means 



VIEWS OF NATHAN STRAUS ON PASTEURIZATION. 543 

of killing pathogenic germs in milk and saving children from disease and death, 
doing what I could to facilitate the putting of such milk at the disposal of 
mothers. 

Instantly my work was bitterly opposed. In those days I could only point 
to the babies fed upon pasteurized milk to prove that I was right. Objections 
to pasteurization multiplied, based entirely upon ignorance or hostility at 
the idea of a mere layman teaching how to save lives. 

************* 
However, throughout all these years, with no purpose but to save lives, I 
was compelled to be on the defensive, and the extension of the benefits of 
pasteurization was hindered everywhere by the noisy clamor of those who 
did not know and who would not believe. 

************ * 

Such was the condition when applied chemistry stepped in to determine 
scientifically the value of pasteurization and the true weight of the objections 
shouted from the housetops by its foes. 

I submitted, with perfect frankness, to the Public Health Service of the 
United States in iqoy, every objection that I had ever heard raised against 
pasteurization, every alleged disadvantage, every criticism, and I asked noth- 
ing but that each of these objections should be carefully considered, and that a 
true scientific verdict should be rendered. 

The result was given to the public last year in the famous Hygienic Labor- 
atory Bulletin No. 41, "Milk and its Relation to the Public Health," which was 
a complete and thorough vindication of pasteurization, proving scientifically 
that the heat necessary to kill the germs of disease does not impair the ferments 
necessary to digestion, does not deteriorate the quality of the milk or lessen its 
food value, does not alter its chemical or physical qualities, and does prevent 
much sickness and save many lives. 

In short, the experts working in the investigation of the milk problem ex- 
perimentallv demonstrated the scientific_correctness of pasteurization as the 
practical method of making milk safe food, confirming my practical experience 
of eighteen years in two hemispheres, and I take this opportunity to express 
my sense of the obligation that humanity thus owes to applied chemistry for 
sweeping away the crude errors and noisy ignorance that has so long protected 
the pathogenic germs in milk and thus enabled them to spread disease and 
death broadcast. 

The importance of this addition to the sum of human knowledge can be 
appreciated only by one who has tried to stand between disease and the babies 
and to shield them from untimely death. 

When the results of this American investigation are properly grasped by the 
medical profession and by the officers charged with the protection of the health 
of nations and communities, it will be held to be a crime to sell milk unless it 
has been produced under sanitary conditions from tuberculin-tested herds, 
and delivered uncontaminated in sterilized containers, or unless it has been 
properly pasteurized. 

Hundreds of thousands of lives will be saved if this Congress will make a 
clear and emphatic declaration for pasteurization as the scientifically correct 
and practically efficient method of sa^-ing human beings from tuberculosis and 
other milk-borne infections. I sincerely hope that the great influence of the 
International Congress of Applied Chemistry will be e.xerted in the cause of 
health and life and against disease and death. 



544 



infants' and invalids' foods. 



Commercial Pasteurization of Milk. — The commercial pasteurization 
of milk has greater or less efficiency according to the care with which it is 
practiced, B. R. Rickards, formerly director of the Boston Board of Health 
Laboratory, in a paper read before the American Pubhc Health Association, 
has called attention to the temperatures which are attained during the process 
of pasteurization. The temperatures observed by him varied from 140° to 
165° F., and the time of exposure to the highest temperatures varied from three 
to twenty minutes. It is stated by Rosenau that exposure for two minutes at 
140° F. is sufficient to kill most of the pathogenic bacteria producing diph- 
theria, typhoid, and dysentery, but at least twenty minutes at 140° are neces- 
sary to kill the tuberculosis germ. 

As to the efficiency of pasteurization of a commercial character, it is found 
by Rickards to vary from 92.4 percent to 98.9 percent. In other words, the 
percentage of organisms present which are killed by the pasteurization 
varies within the limits mentioned. 

Growth of Organisms in Pasteurized Milk. — Attention is called, however, 
to the very great rapidity with which organisms increase in unpasteurized milk. 
For instance, in twenty-four hours at the temperature of the ice box the 
number of organisms in pasteurized milk increases 8400 percent, while the num- 
ber of organisms in unpasteurized milk increases only 2100 percent, showing 
four times as rapid an increase in the pasteurized as in the unpasteurized milk. 

Pasteurized milk keeps a long time, but eventually acquires a strong odor 
and may reach rather advanced stages of decomposition without turning sour, 
and this, of course, is an element of danger. In almost every case reported by 
Rickards the pasteurized milk, although heavily loaded with bacteria, did not 
decompose until after the unpasteurized milk taken at the same time had 
curdled. It is evident that such milk, apparently sweet, must be decidedly 
unfit for feeding infants. 

Results Obtained in Boston. — The conclusions reached by Rickards are pre- 
sented in the "Medical Officer" of London for November 6, 1909, as follows: 

1. A large amount of milk is pasteurized in Boston every day. Some of the 
milk of one contractor is pasteurized in the country and is again pasteurized in 
Boston. 

2. The percentage of milk pasteurized is probably increasing. 

3. Some of this milk is of very high bacterial content. 

4. Bacteria will increase much faster in pasteurized than in unpasteurized milk. 

5. The pasteurization of milk affects the microscopic estimate of bacteria 
and leucocytes. 

6. Commercial pasteurization of milk without restriction puts a premium 
on dirty milk, since dirty and old milk, otherwise unsalable, can then be put 
on the market. 

7. Pasteurized milk may well mean cooked dirt, cooked dung, and cooked 
bacterial products; and the laboratory is powerless to detect it unless ap- 
parent to the naked eye. 



CHANGES DUE TO SUPERHEATING MILK. 545 

8. The commercial pasteurization as at present practiced in Boston prob- 
ably would destroy all disease-producing organisms, with the possible exception 
of the bacilli of tuberculosis. The latter would probably be killed in the ma- 
jority of instances. One machine only out of the three tested would be likely 
to destroy the latter. The toxins produced by these and by the putrefacti\'e 
organisms in dirty milk would undoubtedly escape unharmed, and in many cases 
be capable of producing severe intestinal disturbances, especially in babies. 

9. A false sense of security is undoubtedly conveyed by the term pasteurized 
milk. The lack of security may come from either improper pasteurization, the 
pasteurization of improperly handled milk, or improper care of pasteurized milk. 

10. The unrestricted pasteurization of improperly kept, old, or dirty milk 
should be prevented by regulations or ordinances prohibiting the pasteuriza- 
tion of milk containing over a certain specified number of bacteria per cubic 
centimeter, the bacterial limit being set with due regard to local conditions, 
especially the distance from which the milk comes. Such regulation should, 
,of course, be coupled with a regulation forbidding the sale of milk above the 
bacterial limit established. 

11. The law should require that milk heated above 140° F. should be marked 
heated or pasteurized milk. Pasteurized milk should not be sold as fresh milk. 

The pasteurization of milk in itself is probably not a harmful process, and 
is, perhaps to a certain extent, a necessity under modern conditions in large 
cities, but commercial pasteurization should be carried on only under the most 
stringent supervision. 

Changes due to Superheating Milk. — A work on the hygiene of infancy 
by Dr. Variot has just been presented to the French Academy. The following 
remarks were made at the time of presentation by Prof. Gautier: 

As a result of observations based upon several thousand young infants, 
Variot asserts that the superheating of milk to a temperature of 108° to 110° C. 
(about 230° F.) renders it more digestible than even fresh milk. The cow's 
milk thus prepared gives soft coagulations, easily broken up and readily lending 
themselves to the action of digestion. Although its long use presents certain 
disadvantages, especially in producing constipation and swelling of the ab- 
domen, cows' milk thus sterilized is generally better suited to the bringing up 
of infants than crude milk corresponding thereto. It is certain that milk super- 
heated to this degree saves a multitude of children unfortunately deprived of 
mother's milk. 

Variot in this statement takes no account of the changes in the constitution 
of a milk due to heating and their possible effect on infant nutrition. 



CONTROL OF THE MILK SUPPLY. 
Sources of Pure Milk for Infants. — There are two or three points that 
are of prime importance in the selection of a dairv for producing milk for in- 
fant feeding. In the first place, it must be located in a country that produces 
dairy cows of high grade and efficiencv. Bv reason of natural adyantages, 
36 



546 infants' and invalids' foods. 

such as the character of the pasture and its continuity during the grassy sea- 
son, certain parts of the United States have been found to be more suitable 
for the estabhshment of dairies than others. 

The same difference obtains in other countries, and experience has shown 
that northern sections are more suitable, as a rule, for dairying than those 
farther south; not only is the grass more abundant, more nutritious, and more 
persistent, but the cows are less annoyed by flies and other insect pests, are 
kept in better health, and produce a higher grade of milk. Undoubtedly, the 
region of Normandy is most famous for the character of the dairies and the 
dairy supplies which are produced. The surroundings of the cow are of 
equal importance, and there must be plenty of shade in the pasture and an 
abundance of fresh water in order that the cow may produce a milk suitable 
for infant feeding. Not only should the environment of the cow be such as has- 
been described, but the animal itself must be healthy and free from any disease, 
especially tuberculosis. Frequent testing of the herds is necessary, in order 
to guard against this disease. The more the cow lives in the open, the less is 
she subject to tuberculosis. For instance, the climate of Normandy is so 
mild that the cows are not even stabled for milking. E.xperience has shown 
that high breeding, which means indoor Ijreeding, usually renders an animal 
more subject to tuberculosis than an ordinary one would be. For instance. 
the high-bred Jersey is much more prone to tuberculosis than the nati\e 
cows of the mountains or woodlands. For this reason a grade cow or any or- 
dinary cow might be better suited for the production of milk for infant feeding 
than a higher grade Jersey or other breed. When possible, the milk for in- 
fants should be that of a herd rather than of a single cow. The principal 
point, however, is to secure first cf all cows free from disease, and then to 
keep them in such ideal quarters as to make infection practically impossible. 

Control of Milk Supply for Large Cities. — It is easy, as may be seen, to 
secure proper control of a milk supply for a farm or for a small village in the 
country, but when great units are considered, such as London, Paris, BerUn, 
or New York, the problem becomes extremely difficult. The keeping of 
cows within a city should certainly be prohibited by law. It has been said 
that in some congested quarters of New York city cows have been found even 
on the third and fourth floors of tenement-houses; these animals never see 
the sunlight or get a breath of fresh air from year to year. Whether this is 
an actual condition or not, it illustrates the extreme of what should not happen. 
The cow without a pasture is not a suitable animal to furnish milk for an infant, 
no matter where she may be found. 

The very fondness of the farmer for his stock sometimes leads to injury. 
Stables which are so constructed as to exclude the air and thus remain very 
warm during the winter are not as apt to result in healthy milk as the one 
which by means of numerous cracks or vents permits the free passage of air, 



CERTIFIED MILK. 547 

ccld as it may be. Stables, therefore, should be constructed with as perfect 
ventilation as can be secured, even if some slight discomfort should arise there- 
from for the animal herself. A cow will naturally endure great extremes of tem- 
perature if she has not been inured to luxury by protection during her growth. 

Certified Milk. — The ideal milk for use of infants in large cities is, undoubt- 
edly, the certified milk. Adults may drink milk cf a quality which would be 
almost fatal to an infant and suffer therefrom no appreciable harm. I do not 
mean to convey the idea that adults are not entitled to pure milk, but the point 
which is to be accentuated is that impure milk may not harm an adult seriously 
and yet may kill an infant. If the quantity of certified milk, therefore, is to 
be restricted, that which can be obtained should be devoted to infant feeding. 
The municipal authorities might well take action along these lines, requiring 
infants to be fed only with certified milk in all quarters of the city. As this 
would bear heavily on the poor, it would be a wise expenditure of the public 
funds to provide the difference in price between the low-grade milk which 
the poor person otherwise would secure and the high-grade milk which the law 
requires him to use. In other words, if a poor man can get milk of a low grade 
for six cents a quart, municipalities should see to it that when infants are in 
the family a sufficient quantity of certified milk should be provided, although 
the price to be paid by the poor family might not be greater than the six cents, 
the difference being made up from the municij^al treasury. Thus there would 
be no direct giving of pure milk to the poor man's child, as he would still be 
required to pay the same amount which he was paying for the dangerous milk. 
Many cities have undertaken, through public-spirited men and associations 
to supply milk of this character. Notable__among these is the New York Milk 
Committee, organized for the purpose of securing, if possible, pure milk for 
the poor children cf New York. 

Inadequacy of Certified Milk. — According to some authorities the idea that 
.all the ills due to imperfect milk may be remedied by a proper supervision of 
stables and dairies is not wholly warranted. Unhappily perfect control is 
not often obtained, and the chief objection to certified milk eomes from the 
indifference cf the producers. If the milk is in charge of a person enthusiasti- 
cally devoted to the production of pure milk, and who has ample means to 
carry out his ideas, little is to be feared. If, however, certified milk is furnished 
without adequate hygienic control many cf the precautions which are neces- 
sary may be omitted and injury done before the fault is discovered. Some 
•authorities even advise the pasteurizing of certified milk, but in this case they 
do not take into consideration the objections which have been raised to such 
pasteurization. According to some authorities it tends to derange nutrition, 
especially of the bones. Among those who have opposed pasteurization may 
be mentioned the lUinois State Beard of Health, which has pointed out the 
danger of the development of rickets in infants fed on such milk. 



548 



infants' and invalids' foods. 



Influence of Pure Milk on the Death-rate. — Every one has recognized 
the fact that pure milk, for infants especially, would diminish the death-rate, 
especially during the summer months, to a very perceptible extent. This 
reduction has been practically worked out by Dr. Goler, of Rochester, who 
has for years been interested in the milk supply of that city. An illustration of 
the effect produced by careful control of the milk supply is furnished in tabular 
form by Dr. Goler, in an article printed in the "Maryland Medical Journal" 
in January, 1906. The death-rates in July and August in Rochester are com- 
pared for a period of twenty years. The comparison is made for nine-year 
periods, namely, from 1888 to 1896 and from 1897 to 1905, inclusive. 







July Deaths. 


August Deaths. 




Under i year. 


I to 5 years. 


Under i year. 


I to s years. 


1888 




90 

88 
81 

lOI 

99 

82 

92 

108 


28 
18 

18 

15 
26 
16 
12 
16 
18 


118 
83 
94 

93 
104 

85 
72 

56 

59 


2.S 
24 
18 


1889 

1890 

I89I 
1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 








17 
34 

19 
29 
II 












17 




Tc 


tals, 


874 


167 


764 


194 




Ge 


neral total, 


lOAX 


91:8 













i897> 

1898, 

1899- 

1900, 

1901, 

1902, 

1903. 

1904, 

1905. 

Totals, 

General total, 



July Deaths. 



Under i year. 



43 
47 
51 
50 
37 
26 

32 
15 
53 



354 



I to s years. 



475 



33 
16 



5 
16 



August Deaths. 



Under i year. i to s years. 



407 



44 


13 


47 


10 


44 


18 


54 


14 


38 


8 


43 


20 


34 


18 


43 


6 


60 


13 



527 



Total deaths under five years, July and August, first {period, nine years, without 

municipal milk stations, I999 

Total deaths under five years, July and .August, second period, nine years, with 

municipal milk stations, 1002 



CARE OF FOOD. 549 

Conclusions. — No more striking evidence of the effect of the control of the 
food supply on infant mortahty could possibly be given than these figures. 
While it is more than probable that a part of the conservation of the infant life 
is due to general improvements in medicine and sanitation, and not all to the 
milk supply, yet I think no one would deny that the latter is the dominant fac- 
tor in diminishing the death-rate. When one considers for a moment that the 
death-rate of children under the age of five years has been diminished by 
nearly one-half in the city of Rochester alone, under the influence of sanitary 
food, sanitary surroundings, and progressive medicine, it is plain that it is 
almost criminal on the part of the rulers of large cities to permit the old sys- 
tem of child slaughter to go on. It may be thought that the death of an in- 
fant before it has any economic value is of small importance. This may be a 
consoling doctrine when the case is looked at solely from the point of utihty, 
and yet even from this point the argument is faulty. It is true that a child 
under five years of age has no economic value, but there is an expenditure of an 
economic character in bearing and caring for children under fi\'e years of age. 
The whole amount so invested is lost by the death of the child. But when 
we consider the higher motives and the importance of saving the child to the 
family, the sorrow of the parents, and the general depressing effect of disease 
and death, there is no excuse left for the authorities of municipalities who 
still permit the old death-rate to continue. 

Under the influence of progressive medicine and the advance of science, 
nearly all communities have made great improvements in the care of milk 
for infant uses, and ydt, perhaps even in Rochester and other cities as well 
kept, still greater improvements might be made and the death-rate still further 
lowered. There is every incentive to sanitary science and medical skill to 
develop to the utmost all the means which man can command to protect the 
life of the human family in its most tender years, for if the infants can all be 
saved, the average length of life of the human race will be immensely increased, 
even should the grown man not live longer than he does today. 

INVALIDS' FOODS. 

Care of Food. — Special care should be exercised in connection with the 
keeping of infants' and invalids' foods to avoid the possibility of deterioration 
and infection after the food has reached the house. What is true of sanitary 
precautions respecting infants' and in\alids' foods applies with equal fcrce 
to foods of all kinds. 

Absorption of Bad Odors. — Butter, cream, and milk especially should not 
be exposed to the odors of other foods, as they absorb these odors and hold 
them with tenacity, so that in consumption they give rise to unpleasant sen- 
sations of taste and smell. 



550 infants' and invalids' foods. 

Care of the Ice Chest. — At all times, but especially during hot weather, 
the greatest care should be exercised that the cooler or ice chest is kept in a 
sanitary condition. In the construction of a cooler of this kind it is advisable 
to ha^•e as few sharp corners or other rece|)tacles where impurities can congre- 
gate as possible. Coolers made with curved joints and of glass or enameled 
materials, so as to prevent the absorption of moisture or of objectionable 
organisms, are to be preferred. 

The cooler must always be kept scrupulously clean and this can l;est be 
done by removing the contents very frequently and thoroughly washing and 
sterilizing the food receptacles, and in fact all parts of the cooler. By scrub- 
bing with hot water and subsequently exposing the interior of the cooler, while 
still moist, to the fumes of formaldehyde or of burning sulphur complete 
sterilization and sweetening of the interior of the cooler can be secured. Be- 
fore restoring the food, any fumes of sulphur or formaldehyde remaining should, 
of course, be removed by leaving the doors open for a proper time. 

Protection jrom Dust. — Infants' and in\alids' foods, as well as others, should 
be carefully protected from dust, and when not in the cooler they should be 
well covered. Glass co\ers are preferable for this purpose, and permit the 
condition of the food to be readily ascertained. Shelves on wdiich these foods 
are kept should be perfectly clean and sanitary, and sterilized from time 
to time as directed for the ice chest. 

Contamination by Domesticated Animals. — Foods should not be left where 
cats, dogs, or other animals of the house can reach them. Often the family 
dog and cat are admitted to too intimate association Vjoth with the members 
of the family and with the food supplies, and precautions should be taken to 
prevent any contamination from this source. Protection of foods from rats 
and mice might also be mentioned in this connection. 

Danger from Flies and Mosquitoes. — The fly is the house pest which is most 
carefully to be watched. If the house is near the stable, the plague of flies is 
apt to be greatest, since they breed most profusely in manure heaps. Since 
the discovery of the activities of the mosquito in transmitting disease, greater 
attention has been paid throughout the whole country to the screening of 
dwellings in summer-time, and this screening of course is more effective in 
keeping out the fly than the mosquito. There is no excuse for the plague of 
flies which pre\ails in many households. It is better to exclude them by screen- 
ing than to kill them, in any manner, after they may have gained an entry; 
but if it is difiicult to drive all the flies out of the screened house, the use of 
fly-paper or a fly poison of some kind is ad\'isable to destroy those that remain. 
The fly is one of the most common sources of food contamination, and should 
be rigidly excluded from the house, and especially from the kitchen. It is 
also believed to be a carrier of typhoid fever. The mosquito in some local- 
ities is even a greater pest than the house-fly. The mosquito breeds in stag- 



TOLERATION OF FOODS. 55 1 

nant water, in swamps and ponds, in vessels of water kept about the house 
and barn, and even in cisterns and wells. If the breeding cannot be pre- 
vented, screening is the next best remed}'. The mosquito, although an in- 
tolerable pest, is not so apt to contaminate the food as the fly. 

Sanitation in the Kitchen. — The kitchen and the larder should be kept 
clean and free from organisms with as much care as the cooler. All utensils 
employed in the preparation and transportation of infants' and invalids' 
foods should be absolutely sterile and free from dirt and dust of every kind. 
The kitchen which has an odor of stale food is not in a sanitary condition. 
Ventilation and cleanhness are the cardinal principles on v/hich the kitchen 
should be conducted. 

Classes of Invalids' Foods. — For convenience these foods may be di- 
vided into three classes: first, foods which are offered simply for building 
up and restoring the strength of the body, without specific reference to any 
particular disease; second, those which are intended for use in particular 
■diseases where the food has some specific relation to the character of the 
disease; third, materials, perhaps hardly to be classed as true foods, which 
in themselves contain but little nourishment, but which by means of rapidity 
of absorption or of palatability are used more as stimuli in cases of extreme 
depression or inanition. 

Disordered Nutrition during Illness. — Usually one of the first symptoms 
of illness is disordered nutrition. Loss of p,ppetite is a symptom of almost 
every disease, and disordered digestion attends many of the ailments to which 
humanity is heir, other than those connected dii-ectly with digestion. In the 
treatment of many diseases, especially those of a chronic character, the prob- 
lem of nutrition is one of the most important with which the physician has to 
deal. All physicians admit that medicine and physical or electrical treatments 
do not cure. The surgeon's knife simply amputates and removes the diseased 
part, but nature must restore the tissues and reestabhsh normal conditions. 
When a disordered system is restored to health, it is due to natural causes, but 
these can be aided, promoted, and stimulated by legitimate remedies, electrical 
treatment, and proper nutrition. Hence, food is as much a part of materia 
medica as any drug. 

Toleration of Food. — There is the widest di\ergence among the sick 
in their toleration of food. In some diseases, especially tuberculosis, there 
may be but little difificulty in tolerating the ordinary foods. In other cases, 
especially acute diseases of the digestive organs, certain ordinary forms of 
food which the patient relished when well become extremely objectionable 
to him in ill health. The ingestion of these foods then produces nausea and 
vomiting to such an extent that scarcely any nourishment can be retained in 
the stomach. In such cases it is the duty of the physician to endeavor by every 
known means to discover what the patient can tolerate. The patient's ov'n 



552 infants' and invalids' foods. 

taste in this matter sometimes leads to a proper selection of the food, but this 
cannot always be trusted. 

Danger of Overfeeding. — In most cases care must be taken in the nutri- 
tion of invalids to avoid overfeeding. In some instances, however, it is claimed 
by leading physicians that overfeeding is advisable. This is especially true 
in a disease like tuberculosis. In diseases which are accompanied by fever 
the waste of the body is always abnormally rapid. In fact, fever is onlv the 
result of accelerated consumption of tissue; in other w'ords, energized katabo- 
lism. Usually the high tem[)erature is secured at the expense of the tissues of 
the body and not of the ingested food. This explains the rapid wasting away 
in all diseases accompanied with a high fever. To check this waste it is neces- 
sary to stop the disease, and to regain health the lost tissues must be restored. 
The object of feeding, therefore, in the case of sickness is twofold: First, to 
supply the body with as much nourishment as possible to assist in checking 
the progress of the disease by sparing the body tissues, and, second, to rebuild 
the tissues which have been torn down by the ravages of the disease. There 
is, however, a danger to be avoided in the case of an insatiable appetite follow- 
ing heavy destruction of the body tissues as in typhoid fever. Rupture of the 
intestinal walls and other troubles may ensue if the diet be too heavv or not 
fully cooked. 

Ordinary or Natural Foods. — It is" evident that in the case of invalids' 
foods the materials to be used are those ordinarily employed, and it is onlv nec- 
essary to modify them in their preparation and the relative proportions and 
quantities in which they are used. Selection also should be made of such foods 
as are easily digestible, and this leads to the first of the more important con- 
siderations, namely, the administration of Hquid nourishment. Milk, of 
course, is most frequently used in such cases, but the preparation of other 
foods, so as to bring their soluble constituents into a form suitable for consump- 
tion, is highly important. In each case great care must be exercised in ad- 
ministering these preparations in small and often repeated quantities, in order 
to guard against injury. It is usually advisable to administer the juice of 
fruits instead of the fruits themselves. Great benefit frequently results from 
the use of the juice of apples, grapes, or other fruits. When solid food is ad- 
ministered, it should be in small quantities and in a proper state of sub- 
division, produced mechanically or by cooking, which renders it easily suscepti- 
ble to the action of the digestive ferments. Soft-boiled eggs are very useful 
in many cases of this kind, and sour milk, either buttermilk or fermented 
milk, known as koumiss, is frequently of great aid, being more readily tolerated, 
as a rule, than sweet milk or cream. 

While the partial or wholly digested foods are of value in sustaining life and 
bridging over brief periods of illness, they should not be gi\en to a patient any 
longer than necessary, as the healthy organism is better nourished by a food 



FOODS AS A CAUSE OF DISEASE. 



553 



in its natural undigested state than by a digested food. Further, it is well to 
give invalids a food that has been digested by natural means, that is by enzyms, 
rather than one in which the cleavage was brought about by artificial means, 
the latter appearing to differ somewhat in character from the former and the 
results to be less beneficial. 

It is also important to select foods for invalids and infants which have a 
neutral or allvaline ash, as foods with an ash possessing an acid reaction are a 
constant source of drain on the available alkaU of the body, leading to an excre- 
tion of sodium, potash, and ammonia and perhaps other available free alkali 
in combination with the acid elements of the ash. The ill effects of feeding 
corn and other foods with an acid ash has been demonstrated in the case of 
animals by several investigators. 

Foods as a Cause of Disease. — That some foods are the direct cause of 
certain diseases, as well as predisposing causes in hundreds of other instances, 
is a well known fact. One of the most familiar illustrations of this fact is the 
case of scurvy, a disease which is due principally to the continued and exclu- 
sive use of cured foods, especially meats. The disease is removed only when 
the cause of its production ceases to exist, and fresh vegetables and fruits, 
particularly oranges, lemons, and grape fruit, form at least a part of the dietary. 

Another mysterious disease which has long puzzled medical men is beri- 
beri, which occurs principally in rice-eating countries. Extensive investiga- 
tions made as to the cause of this disease have indicated that it was seen in its 
greatest virulence among soldiers, and especially sailors, confined almost ex- 
clusively to a diet of rice. In other words, beri-beri holds the same relation 
apparently to rice as scurvy holds to cured meats. One of the most interesting 
of the modern developments, however, in the case of beri-beri is seen in the 
fact that it is now believed to be caused but rarely by natural rice, but rather 
by rice which has been polished. Polishing rice is a process whereby its outer 
coat is largely removed, and together with it the layer of phosphate cells 
found immediately beneath the external covering. Japan has succeeded in 
stamping out beri-beri from her navy by an improved dietary, while in Java 
the Dutch physicians have reported that a mixture of other foods with rice 
has vastly reduced the prevalence of this disease. Further than this, the Dutch 
physicians have found that when rice was eaten unhulled, namely, unpolished, 
the proportion of cases among the soldiers was only one in ten thousand, while, 
on the other hand, if the outer covering was entirely removed the proportion 
was one to thirty-nine. It is evident from this that one method of preventing 
the introduction of beri-beri into this country, where the consumption of rice 
is largely increasing, would be to forbid the importation of rice which had 
been polished or treated in this or a similar manner, and to forbid inter- 
state commerce in such rice as having undergone a treatment which may 
render it injurious to health. 



554 



infants' and invalids' foods. 



The following resolution was passed by the Biennial Congress of the Far 
Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine, held at Manila, March 5 to 14, 
1910: 

Resolved, That in the opinion of this association sufficient evidence has 
now been produced in support of the view that beri-ljeri is associated with the 
continuous consumption of white (poHshed) rice as the staple article of diet, 
and the association accordingly desires to bring this matter to the notice of the 
various Governments concerned. 

Sour Milk and Longevity. — IVIany and extravagant claims have been 
made respecting the virtues of sour milk in the prolonging of life. It is claimed 
that the ferments which produce the acidity of milk are not only harmless in 
themselves, but are highly militant and eager to undertake a campaign of ex- 
termination against the pathogenic bacteria of the intestines. That sour milk 
is wholesome and palatable there is no manner of doubt. It is an item of 
nutrition of considerable importance, especially on the farm where the old- 
fashioned method of making butter still prevails. 

Misleading conclusions have been drawn from the studies of man}- investiga- 
tors, especially of Metchnikoff, respecting the virtues of sour milk, and the 
most extravagant claims are made respecting its abihty to prolong life. Even 
if this faculty of sour milk were apparent, it is entirely too soon after its dis- 
covery and promulgation to base any experimental conclusions upon it. It 
requires, of course, more than eighty years to determine whether or not sour milk 
will prolong life. The fact th^t people who consume sour milk live to a ripe 
old age is of no consequence, since a great many who do not drink it do the 
same. The only valuable experimental evidence would be to begin with a colony 
of infants, nourished in the ordinary way, both during infancy and when 
grown, and another colony of a similar number, nourished in the usual way 
and afterward fed constantly and largely on a sour milk diet. The determina- 
tion of the respective lengths of life of the two groups, not of individuals thereof, 
might finally be considered as a demonstration of the value or lack of value 
of a sour milk diet to prolong life. But whatever the real merits of the case 
may be, there is no doubt of the great interest in the matter at the present 
time. 

Some of the sour milks which have been long known have already been 
spoken of, such as koumiss and kephir, and there are many others. These 
terms are usually the names of sour milk in the several countries in which they 
have been largely used. Lately there has been discovered an organism, 
Bacillus Bulgarictis, which is said to have peculiarly developed the properties 
of souring milk. It is claimed also that the Bulgarian bacillus, so called, does 
not produce alcohol, nor any other injurious substances which too often attend 
ordinary yeast and bacterial fermentation. Further, it is claimed that this 



SOUR MILK AND LONGEVITY. 555 

bacillus has no action upon the albuminoids of the milk nor on the fats. If all 
of these assumptions are true, then it is certain that the Bacillus Bulgariciis 
will prove one of the most useful agents for souring milk yet discovered, 
especially if it can be acclimated to the digestive tract. In this case it might 
prove of great benefit in the way of arresting pernicious fermentations and put- 
refractions. In point of fact, all kinds of bacterial flora flourish in milk, and 
it is rather difficult to cultivate one at the expense of the others unless it be 
one of such a vigorous hfe as to practically preclude the growth of other less 
fortunately endowed organisms. 

' Preparations of this bacillus are now offered, with the assurance of the purity 
of the cultures and the activity of the ferments. The Bacillus Bulgaricus is 
said to produce lactic acid, not only from milk sugar, but also from ordinary 
sugars, such as cane sugar, maltose, levulose, and dextrose. For this reason 
the cultvires of the bacillus can be made not only in milk, but in vegetable 
broths or other preparations which contain sugars on which they can act. 

Already many certificates are found in the public press and in advertising 
literature of the virtues of sour milk specially prepared by some particular 
process like that described for preparation of the Bacillus Bulgaricus. Nat- 
urally, as in other cases of the same kind, these certificates must be considered 
cum grano salis. For instance, in Bulgaria, where this bacillus flourishes and 
where sour milk is used in large quantities, it is stated in some of this adver- 
tising literature that centenarians are extrertiely common, some of whom are 
said to have Hved chiefly on a milk diet. An example of one case, Marie 
Priou, who died in 1838 at the age of one hundred and fifty-eight years, shows 
that she lived for the last ten years of her life entirely on cheese and goat's 
milk. This, however, would not prove much, as it appears she lived for one 
hundred and forty-eight years on an ordinary diet and thus had already es- 
tablished a reputation for longevity. It is doubtless true that many people who 
have lived to extreme old age have used milk largely as a diet, and sour milk 
at that. On the other hand, it is perfectly certain that many other people who 
have used milk and sour milk chiefly as a diet have died early in life. 

One of the most interesting of these surprising statements is the following: 

In the village of Sba, in the district of Gori, there is an old Ossete woman, 
Thense Abalva, whose age is supposed to be about one hundred and eighty 
years. This woman is still quite capable and looks after her household duties 
and sews. Although she is bent, she walks firmly enough. Thense has never 
taken alcoholic liquors. She rises early in the morning, and her chief food is 
barley bread and buttermilk, taken after the churning of the cream. 

There are perhaps other factors besides the buttermilk which ha\'e contrib- 
uted to the extreme age of this old woman; her abstinence from alcoholic 
beverages and the use of barley bread ought not to be left out of consideration. 



556 infants' and invalids' foods. 

Another one of these instances of long life due to sour milk reads much 
like the advertisement of a certain whiskey. It is as follows: "Mrs. 
Jenny Read, an American, has written to me that her father, eighty-four 
years old, owes his health to the curdled milk which he has taken for the 
last forty years." 

These instances are taken from the works of Metchnikcff and hence have 
received much greater vogue than they otherwise would have done. This 
authority, however, realizes that a great many other factors besides sour milk 
tend to promote health and prolong life. He says: 

If it be true that our precocious and unhappy old age is due to poisoning of 
the tissues (the greater part of the poisoning coming from the large intestine, 
inhabited by numberless microbes), it is clear that agents which arrest in- 
testinal putrefaction must at the same time postpone and ameliorate old age. 
This theoretical view is confirmed by the collection of facts regarding races 
which live chiefly on sour milk, and amongst which great ages are common. 
However, in a question so important, the theory must be tested by direct ob- 
servations. For this purpose the numerous infirmaries for old people should 
be taken advantage of, and systematic investigations should be made on the 
relation of intestinal microbes to precocious old age, and on the influence of 
diets which prevent intestinal putrefaction in prolonging life and maintaining 
the forces of the body. It can only be in the future, near or remote, that we 
shall obtain exact information upon what is one of the chief problems of hu- 
manity. 

In the meantime, those who wish to preserve their intelligence as long as 
possible and to make their cycle of life as complete and as normal as is possible 
under present conditions, must depend on general sobriety and on habits 
conforming to the rules of rational hygiene. 

From the above it will be seen that after all Metchnikoff is not yet willing 
to say that the consumption of sour milk is the sole or even the chief factor in 
the prolongation of life. 

Advertising Claims. — It is unfortunate that scheming manufacturers have 
taken advantage of this possibility without waiting for any convincing dem- 
onstration and are offering to the public what are said to be pure cultures of 
the Bacillus Bulgaricus, with lists of diseases in which its use is efficacious. 
For instance, the following diseases, among others, are said to yield to the 
treatment of this bacillus: Eczema and all diseases of the skin, diarrhea, 
dyspepsia, dysentery, typhoid fever, sick headaches, all complaints of the 
liver, malaria in all of its forms, diabetes. Bright 's disease and other diseases 
of the kidneys, rheumatism, gout, sclerosis, atheroma, senihty, all diseases 
due to uric acid, all kinds of gaslro-intestinal disturbances. All statements 
similar to those above can only serve to bring the whole subject of the use 
of sour milk into deserved contempt. 

As the pure culture of the bacillus is not at ah pleasant to the taste, it is 



PRESERVATIVES IN FRUIT JUICES. 557 

recommended that it be administered by masking it with sterihzed water, 
carbonated or plain, a little sugar, or any saccharine or other sirup, with some 
powdered cinnamon, or crumbs of dry black bread, such as pumpernickle; 
in other words, some vehicle to mask its acidity and unpleasant taste. 

Summary. — It would be quite out of place in a work of this kind to either 
recommend any proprietary food or specialty, or to say anything derogatory 
thereto, and therefore I am considering only the general principle and not any 
particular preparation. The summary of the present condition of the sour 
milk agitation, it seems to me, is this. Sour milk has from immemorial times 
been used and appreciated by man. It is, doubtless, a wholesome, palatable, 
and nutritious form of milk diet. Sour milk can even be tolerated when sweet 
milk is extremely nauseating and objectionable and in such cases of deranged 
nutrition its administration is highly advisable. That it acts in any specific 
way in protecting the body against the dangers of intestinal putrefaction re- 
mains to be proved. It may do so in a general way, as does any good food 
which is palatable and easily digested. To this extent its utility cannot be 
denied. That it will have any general specific effect in prolonging human life 
is, a matter which is wholly speculative. It may be said that care in the selec- 
tion of foods, so that they may be all of the best and purest and freshest, will 
doubtless tend to prolong life. Milk is one of the most important of human 
foods, and hence its presentation in the most, palatable and digestible manner is 
of the highest consequence, and when so presented, it will, doubtless, tend to 
prolong life. It is, however, entirely beyond the scope of our present knowledge 
to aflirm that sour milk, as such, is a protection against premature death. 

Preservatives in Fruit Juices. — As fruit juices are used quite exten- 
sively, especially grape juice, for invalids, the following statement made in the 
*'Zeitschrift fiir offentliche Chemie," February 15, 1910, in regard to the action 
taken in Saxony forbidding the use of preservatives in such products is of 
interest : 

From the point of view of the nutrition of the people and the control of food 
products, weighty suspicions are aroused against the use of preserving ma- 
terials in the food industry, with the exception of alcohol, as recommended by 
the Chamber of Commerce of Dresden on the third of September, 1909; even 
if the use is restricted, as suggested by the Chamber of Commerce, important 
objections are raised to this practice. Science does not possess sufficient exper- 
ience and experimental data on a single substance to be able to state definitely 
the amount per hundredweight which would be non-injurious and therefore 
allowable. Further, after allowing a designated preservati\e to be added to 
fruit juices, the same would have to be allowed for all foods on the market. 
The result would be a flooding of the markets with all sorts of preparations 
which had been preserved in like manner as the fruit juices, for instance, 
milk, beer, butter, and preserves of all kinds. A public statement as to the 
non-injuriousness of x milligrams of salicyhc acid or boric acid in fruit juices 
would therefore entail the general use of these bodies in foods and condiments. 



■558 infants' and invalids' foods. 

This, however, would be lamentable from the standpoint of the interests of 
human health, and also from the standpoint of honest trade. Further, there 
would be an encroachment on the food control, as has been suggested by the 
Chamber of Commerce, which would not be reconcilable with the imperial 
prohibition of the addition of salicylic acid, boric acid, benzoic acid, and formic 
acid to wine, or even to drinks containing wine, and of salicylic acid and its 
compounds to meats. The Minister of the Interior, therefore, does not find 
himself in position to take a step which would permit the introduction ( f the 
above-mentioned ])reserving substances into the food industry, all the less so 
because to the makers of the fresh fruit juices there is a choice between pas- 
teurization and the addition of alcohol, processes which up to the present time 
have been demonstrated as useful in the preservation of these foods. The 
fear that the high price of alcohol would make its use in the manufacture of 
fruit juices impossible in the future, the Minister of the Interior, in view of the 
price of the production of the spirit, cannot share. 



FOODS USED AS DRUGS. 

Medicinal Foods. — There is a large class of foods which are intended for 
the use of infants and invalids, which partake more of the nature of a medicine 
than of a food, to which the term "medicinal foods" is applied. Most of them 
are liquid or semi-liquid in form, and some are said to be predigested. They 
are, therefore, solutions which contain as their essential constituents small 
amounts of food substances, consisting chiefly of protein and carbohydrates, 
containing no, or very little fat, and usuall}- preserved from decay by the use 
of alcohol or glycerol. The proteins have been converted into soluble ma- 
terial, that is, peptones or proteoses, by means of enzymic or chemical action. 
The carbohydrate constituent of these foods is either lactose or sucrose or 
starch which has likewise been converted into a soluble form, either by diastatic 
action or bv an acid. Sometimes proteins may be converted into soluble forms 
by means of the action of acids, alkalies, or superheated steam, or all three 
combined. These and similar products are not, however, suitable for medicinal 
foods, that is, for the nourishment of those whose digestive and assimilative 
powers have been so weakened by reason of disease that it is not possible any 
longer to nourish them with the usual foods. Foods that have been rendered 
soluble by means of chemical and physical means are regarded by many phy- 
sicians as toxic or at least dangerous as nutritive agents. 

These foods have a varying composition, the protein in them ranging frcm 
less than 0.5 percent to more than 6 percent; the carbohydrates also range 
from about 0.5 percent to more than 15 percent, and the alcohol content varies 
from 12 to iQ percent by weight, while the percentage by volume, of course, 
would be con.siderably greater. As before stated, some of the.se foods contain 
large quantities of glycerol, used as the preserving agent instead of alcohol. 

The Value 0} Medicinal Foods. — The value of medicinal foods depends on 



MEDICINAL FOODS 559 

the protein and carbohydrate bodies contained therein. Glycerol does not, so 
far as known at present, possess any recognized food value, although there is a 
number of experiments on record to indicate that it influences metabolism. 
The food value of the alcohol contained in these mixtures is of doubtful nature. 
While it is true that in a state of health a man is able to oxidize a considerable 
quantity of alcohol, estimated by some at as much as three ounces of absolute 
alcohol per day, the ability to do this in times of extreme depression and weak- 
ness is doubtful. The alcohol, therefore, may act in a toxic manner rather 
than as a food. Hence it must be admitted that the presence of alcohol in 
such cases is to be looked upon as reprehensible, and this too without denying 
that in a state of health it may have some food value. In point of fact, the use 
of alcohol as a remedial agent is by no means so generally considered to be 
effective as iiT former times. There is a large and growing school of dieticians, 
including many learned members of the medical profession, who deny to alco- 
hol the therapeutic value which heretofore has commonly been assigned to it. 
If, therefore, alcohol has neither therapeutic value nor can be assimilated in 
the stages of depressed vitality in which medicinal f(x:)ds are resorted to, it 
can readily be seen that its presence is an unmitigated evil. In no case can 
alcohol act to build up the tissues, which is the effect most desired in cases of 
pronounced anemia and emaciation. What value the soluble protein and 
soluble carbohydrate may have in such cases is, therefore, likely to be counter- 
balanced by the evil effects of the alcohol present. 

Studies of Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry. — The Council on Phar- 
macy and Chemistry of the American Medical Association has made a study 
of these foods, and has found that some of them possess less than one- 
sixth the nutritive power of milk, while the best of them have a nourishing 
power but Httle greater than that of milk itself. The Council has, therefore, 
decided that no liquid medicinal, or so-called predigested food, should be given 
consideration which contains less nutritive value, exclusive of alcohol and gly- 
cerol, than milk, and that at least one-fourth of this value must be in its nitro- 
genous constituents. It should be remembered that to sustain the equilibrium 
of a patient during a serious illness and prevent a waste which threatens death, 
not less than two quarts of milk, having a food value of 1430 calories, are re- 
quired per day; to give a patient this amount of nourishment in the form of 
the medicinal foods alone would require the exhibition of such a quantity of 
liquid as would keep the patient in a state of continuous intoxication, even if 
it could be tolerated. If the small doses which are usually prescribed are 
given, the patient will be, undoubtedly, on a starvation diet, and thus suffer 
great injury when his friends and even the physician may think he is being 
nourished. Plainly, the only use of these foods, if they are to be employed 
at all, is in connection with a diet of milk or other ordinary food. The compo- 
sition of some of these medicinal foods is given further on. 



560 infants' and invalids' foods. 

MEAT PREPARATIONS. 

Meat Juices. — The juices of fresh meats, prepared in the home, are often 
found to be extremely palatable and to have some food value. The supposition 
that meat juices are highly nutritious is erroneous, but they are quickly di- 
gested and absorbed. On account of the tendency of meat juices to decompose 
it is advisable in all cases, if at all possible, to have them prepared immediately 
before using at the home. The quantity of juice which may be pressed from 
meat is not very great, but there are many little presses on sale which can be 
utilized for this purpose. If cold pressed meat juice is not required, the meat 
may be warmed to a moderate temperature before pressing; care should be 
exercised, however, not to apply a temperature approaching the boihng point 
of water, as this will coagulate some of the substances in solution. An excellent 
preparation is obtained by grinding the meat very finely, adding a little water, 
and allowing the preparation to warm gently on the stove below the boiling 
point before pressing. 

Commercial Meat Juices. — Many preparations of meat juices are found on 
the market in various forms. The chief objection to them is that they must be 
preserved in some artificial way. The age of the preparation and the character 
of the preservative often make such foods more harmful than helpful. Pas- 
teurization or sterilization is not suitable for the preservation of meat juices 
because of the coagula formed by the high temperature. A prepared meat 
juice will probably be preserved either by salt, glycerin, alcohol, or a chemical 
preservative which must necessarily be consumed with the juice itself. I 
think it will not be denied that all such methods of preservation are injurious 
to an invalid. The quantity of the preservative is often greater than the total 
nutritious substances of the juice, so that the patient does not get much nourish- 
ment but does get relatively large quantities of these preservatives in his food. 

Impurities of any kind in any foods are to be deprecated, but their addition 
to or occurrence in foods of the sick, whose bodies are already depleted by 
reason of disease and abnormal conditions, is obviously inexcusable. To tax 
the system with the handling and excretion of ingredients which serve no good 
purpose is bad enough in the case of health, but in illness, when the vitality 
is low and the organs already overtaxed, it is a case of "whoever is not with me 
is against me"; the disastrous effects are apt to be swift and pronounced, 
and every precaution should be taken to insure that all food materials used 
are pure and unadulterated. The use of chemical preservatives and other 
harmful ingredients in invalids' foods is plainly criminal. In this connection 
attention is called to the action taken in Saxony in excluding preservatives 
from fruit juices as already mentioned. 

Meat Extracts. — Meat extracts are more numerous than meat juices. A 
meat extract is a liquid or semi-solid obtained from meat, usually by heating 



MEAT EXTRACTS. 561 

and generally with the addition of water, though it may be made without. 
The average water content of the semi-solid extract is about 25 percent. Very 
little nutrient matter is extracted from meat by hot water, but the extract 
is pleasing to the taste, is rapidly assimilated, and in some cases is highly 
desirable, especially in tiding over crises in which the body does not need a great 
deal of nourishment, but must get it quickly. They are also useful in flavoring 
broths, etc. It is, of course, presumed that in the preparation of meat juices 
healthy animals are employed, though it cannot be said that this is always 
the case. Sometimes animals which are not suitable for eating, and yet not 
diseased, are used for the purpose of making meat extracts. Old bullocks 
which are too tough for beef purposes have been used very extensi\ely for 
this purpose. 

Commercial extracts are generally prepared by evaporating the water in 
which the beef for canning was heated, that is, they are a by-product in the 
preparation of canned beef. 

The subject of meat extracts has been very extensively studied by Bigelow 
and Cook, who have published the results of their investigations in Bulletin 
No. 1 14 of the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The 
samples which were examined by these investigators were purchased prior to 
the enactment of the Food and Drugs Act, and, hence, represent the character 
of goods which were on the market at that tii^e. The analyses of the samples 
were submitted to the manufacturers for any comments which they chose 
to make upon them before publication. 

Solid Meat Extracts .—There are some extracts of meat in which the liquid 
is evaporated apparently to dryness, and this enables the extract to be preserved 
with greater facility, and also diminishesl;he cost of transportation. Although 
the products are in a solid state they are by no means dry, containing from 12 
to 26 percent of moisture. In the solid meat extracts the mineral constituents, 
of course, are very much concentrated. These consist of common salt together 
with the mineral constituents which are present in the extract, or which may be 
added in the course of manufacture. 

For convenient study and inspection, Bigelow- and Cook divide meat extracts 
into four classes, i. e., solid meat extracts, fluid meat extracts, meat juices, and 
miscellaneous preparations. The analyses of these different classes are given 
in the table further on. 

Substitutes for Meat Extracts. — Attempts have been made in the oreparation of 
infants' and invalids' foods to substitute some less expensive material for meat 
extracts. The most promising substitutes which ha\e been used are extracts 
of yeast, which are in some respects similar in composition to these obtained 
from meat. Yeast extracts are prepared by evaporation in vacuum cookers, 
resembling the method used in making meat extracts. In Germany prepara- 
tions have been found consisting of a dilute preparation of meat to which a 
37 



562 infants' and invalids' foods. 

large amount of foreign protein, such as egg albumen, has been added. For 
many years yeast extracts have appeared on the market, especially in Germany, 
and have also been mixed with and used to adulterate meat extracts; their 
manufacture in the United States, however, has not obtained any great vogue, 
although it is claimed that small cjuantities are now made. When the aqueous 
extract of yeast is evaporated, especially in an open kettle, the color changes 
greatly and tinel}' simulates that of meat extract. When the color is not deep 
enough in such cases, the use of caramel is resorted to in order to secure the 
necessary tint. Care is taken not to allow the evaporation to go too far, since 
otherwise bitter principles are formed, which in seme respects resemble pep- 
tones, and which may be partially removed li'y washing with water and dilute 
ammonia. 

The quantity of nitrogenous constituents in yeast extracts is smaller than in 
meat extracts. Some authors claim that their stimulating effect on the diges- 
tion is about equal in intensity, and as far as nutritive value is concerned, 
weight for weight of dry matter, there does not appear to be ver}- much differ- 
ence between them. The principal difference of a chemical nature between 
the yeast and the meat extract is found in the fact that the former contains no 
kreatin or kreatinin, while in the typical meat extracts from 10 to 20 percent 
of the total nitrogen is in these forms. The xanthin bases are also distributed 
differently in the two extracts. In meat extracts xanthin and hypoxanthin 
predominate, while in the yeast extracts adenin and guanin are the principal 
constituents. 

Miscellaneous Extracts Intended for Invalids and Infants.— In 
the tables at the end of the chapter are founrl some miscellaneous compounds 
which are intended for infants and invalids. Among these may be mentioned 
the albumose and peptone powders, which are divided into two classes: first, 
those formed by the action of steam and acid on exhausted meat or other 
protein; and, second, powders prepared by chemically treating lean meat with 
hvdrochloric acid and pepsin, by means of which all the fibrin, albumin, and 
gelatin are rendered soluble after being digested in water at a temperature of 
blood heat. These preparations may be more nutritious than the ordinary 
meat extract, but the methods of making the meat soluble are such as to throw 
doubt on the wholesomeness of the preparation. In fact it may be said that 
aside from the home-made meat juices or meat extracts there would be little 
loss to invalids if the stanflard preparations on the market were withdrawn. 

Extracts from the crab and other crustaceans are also found, the crab ex- 
tract being quite common in Germany. In this country there is quite a large 
sale for clam juice, which may, in some respects, be compared with crab ex- 
tract. Other extracts prepared from fish, shrimps, clams, and anchovies are 
sometimes sold, but they are not of commercial imj)ortance. 

Classification. — These miscellaneous compounds may be grouped for study 



ADDITION OF GELATIN TO MEAT EXTRACTS. 563 

according to certain characteristics of composition. In the first class Bigelow 
and Cook place extracts with high total kreatinin, approaching 10 percent, and 
a total meat base content of 40 percent of the total nitrogen. In these products 
the proteose and peptone nitrogen should include from 30 to 50 percent of the 
total nitrogen present. In class two are placed those miscellaneous preparations 
which have a proteose and peptone nitrogen content of above 50 percent of the 
total nitrogen. This class of bodies is low in both kreatinin and meat bases. 
Class three includes preparations low in proteose and peptone nitrogen and in 
kreatinin, but high in meat bases, while in class four are the extracts that are 
high in insolulile and coagulable proteid. In the above statements the krea- 
tin is included with the kreatinin. 

In several of these preparations but a small amount of meat extractives or bases 
are found. The data show that kreatin and kreatinin were absent in several 
cases, proving that the products in question were not made by the evaporation 
of an infusion of meat, and in some cases the total nitrogen was less than i 
percent. The stimulating effect of these compounds and the nutritive value 
of the nitrogenous bases are, of course, extremely small in all these cases. 
In fact, all of these liquid meat products, as far as nutrition is concerned, as 
has already been stated, are of little value, but they probably have uses in ex- 
treme cases of depression where a temporary stimulating effect is necessary in 
order that the digestive organs may be enabled to readily take care of more 
nutritious foods. 

Addition of Gelatin to Meat Extracts.— It is doubtless true that the addi- 
tion of gelatin to meat extracts has been practiced more or less in the past, as 
pointed out by Bigelow and Cook. By this means the manufacturer increased 
and maintained a certain nitrogen content, but supplied the nitrogen in a form 
lacking in stimulating effect and probably to some extent in nutritive value. 
Certain compounds, namely, tyrosin and tryptophane, are not present in gela- 
tin, while they are found in true proteins. Gelatin alone is said not to support 
life in spite of its relatively high nitrogen content, while a true protein with a 
lower nitrogen content will. Gelatin, however, must be accorded some value 
as a protein-sparer. The buyer of an extract containing gelatins is, however, 
deprived of the characteristic essentials of a true meat extract, although the 
nitrogen content may be relatively high. In many cases only a small propor- 
tion of the added gelatin existed in the extract as such, as it was converted by 
the gradual process of hydration into gelatoses and gelatin peptones. But 
although gelatin as such is sometimes added to meat extracts, more frequently 
an extract prepared from bones to which some meat clings (which necessarily 
gives a product high in nitrogen due to the formation of gelatin from the bone) 
is mixed with straight meat extract, which contains little or no gelatin. Such 
preparations as these bone extracts are sold as second and third grades by the 
most reliable dealers. 



564 infants' and invalids' foods. 

Some gelatin may be formed in the preparation of a high-grade extract of 
meat, although with proper precautions there should be none present. When a 
sufficient amount of gelatin is present, it is readily detected by the setting 
qualities of the extract after warming. The power of gelatinizing is only 
possessed by unaltered gelatin; its dissociation products do not have this 
power. It is evident, therefore, that gelatin has no proper place in extracts 
of this kind, as it is totally different from them in its character and cannot be 
claimed to have the same stimulating effect for tiding over periods of great 
prostration as have the meat extracts. Bigelow and Cook conclude their 
studies with the following observations: 

It is commonly assumed that proteids, gelatinoids, and the simpler amids 
"have very different nutritive values, and, while all authorities would agree in 
assigning the highest value to the first of these, there is probably no small 
difference of opinion as to the order in which the second and third should be 
rated. In considering such a question, there should be separately taken into 
account relative digestibility or solubility, capability of undergoing osmotic 
absorption, and oxidizability for the production of energy. At present, no 
definite numerical statement of the relative nutritive values of nitrogenous 
bodies of these three classes can be made. It seems much to be desired that 
more extended experiments than have so far been recorded should be made 
upon living animals (as far as possible upon human beings) to determine the 
utilization of both the gelatinoids and the simpler amids. The latter no doubt 
undergo oxidation to some extent in the animal body, and produce some energy 
in consequence. It is probably true of these simpler amidic substances that 
much larger quantities than analysis exhibits as constituents of the food con- 
sumed, or than analysis detects among the residue of food rejected from the 
body without having undergone complete oxidation, may be constantly formed 
among the earlier products of the metabolism of the proteids, and afterward 
themselves undergo further change into the simpler and more stable forms of 
carbon dioxid, water, and urea. 

In the animal lx)dy the amido acids are acted upon in two ways; that is, 
they are converted into the corresponding fixed acids or carbonic acid is split 
off, leading to the formation of Brieger's diamins, or it is possible for both of 
these processes to take place. Usually the albumins are converted in the 
alimentary tract by the four proteolytic ferments (pepsin, trypsin, erepsin, and 
arginase) into primary crystalline dissociation products, namely, the amido 
acids, which are absorbed in this form. Whether a part of the albumin taken 
as food can or cannot be absorbed in the form of albumoses, peptones, and 
peptids remains to be determined. 

Meat preparations of the sort included in this report are largely used by the 
sick and the young. Their use is recommended frequently b}- ph}-sicians who 
may not have taken the trouble to ascertain the true nutritive value of the prod- 
uct prescribed. It seems to be the general consensus of opinion among 
scientific investigators who have studied this question that the food value of 
these meat extracts is rather limited, and although the}- are a source of energy 
to the body, they must not be looked upon as representing in any notable 
desree the food value of the beef or other meat from which thev are derived. 



ADDITION OF GELATIN TO MEAT EXTRACTS. 



565 



When prepared under the best possible conditions, a commercial meat extract 
is, of necessity, in order that it may not spoil, deprived of the greater part of 
the coagulable proteids, which constitute the chief nutritious elements of the 
juice. It is fair to state that many manufacturers make no claim as to the food 
value of their preparations, only a comparatively few making extravagant 
statements as to the nutritive value of these products. 

Preparations of this character are not wholly valueless in the sick room, for 
they possess stimulating qualities, and in the kitchen they are useful on ac- 
count of their flavoring properties. They are not, however, concentrated foods,, 
having, on the contrary, but comparatively little nutritive value. The meat 
juice prepared from fresh meat, in the home or hospital, by continued heating 
at a low temperature, is far superior as a food to the commercial meat extracts 
and so-called meat juices. 

ANALYSES OF MEAT EXTRACTS, JUICES, AND POWDERS. 

(From Bulletin No. 114, Bureau oj Chemistry.) 

Solid Meat Extracts. 



Name. 


Mois- 
ture. 


Min- 
eral 
Mat- 
ter. 


Salt. 


Total 
Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 


Or- 
ganic 
Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 


Acid- 
ity AS 
Lactic 
Acid. 


Ether 

Ex- 
tract. 


Total 
Pro- 
teids.* 


Total 
Meat 
Bases. 


" Rex " Brand Beef Ex- 
tract 


26.50 
21.14 

21.65 

21.86 
20.16 
12.39 


24.06 
21.03 

20.46 

30.92 
27.28 
31.68 


8-54 
3" 

5-47 

18.32 
13.51 
13.25 


2.29 

2.40 

4.55 , 

2-53 
2.S9 

3^19 


0.35 
.61 

■49 

.24 
.18 
.21 


6.01 
S.13 

8.42 

5.15 
4.15 
6.44 


1.30 
.94 

•50 

■53 
.43 
.43 


i 

22.12 
30.50 

27.51 

14.93 
15.38 
15.01 


^ 


Liebig's Extract of Meat, 

Armour's Extract of 

Beef, 


11.92 
9.52 

9.98 
10.70 
13.14 


Extract of Beef Premier 
(Libbv, McNeill, and 
Libby) 

Swift & Go's Beef Ex- 


Beef Extract, Coin Spe- 
cial (Hammond Co.), . 



Fluid Meat Extracts. 



Armour's Concentrated 
Fluid Beef Extract. . . 

John Wyeth & Bro.'s 
Beef Juice, 

Valentine's Meat Juice 
Go's Meat Juice, . . . 

V'igoral (.Armour &Co.), 

"Rex" Fluid Beef Ex- 
tract (Cudahy Co.), . . 

CibilsGo's Fluid Extract 
of Beef 

The M osquera -J ui ia 
Food Go's Fluid Beef 
Jelly 



57-75 


17.23 


S.27 


2.32 


0.26 


3." 


0.09 


6.76 


5S.84 


16.21 


6.71 


3.27 


.04 


3.92 


■23 


6.45 


57.64 
49.94 


10.26 
15.91 


1.77 
7.02 


3.41 
3.29 


.46 


4.53 
4.76 


.50 
.04 


5.63 
10.75 


55.99 


16.99 


8.4S 


2.48 


.38 


4.92 


.05 


7.00 


64.63 


16.13 


11.38 


.95 


.14 


2.43 


.06 


10.25 


68.97 


13.85 


10.05 


.80 


.18 


2.20 


.09 


' 8.13 



5.18 

5.99. 

6.05 
6.30 

8.21 

4.24 
3.06 



' Sum of protein, proteoses, and peptones. 



566 



infants' and invalids' foods. 



MEAT JUICES PREPARED IN LABORATORY. 

(From Bulletin No. 14, Bureau of Chemistry.) 



Preparation of Juice. 



% 

Round beef, cold pressed, 85.76 

Chuck beef, cold pressed, 

Round beef pressed at 60° C, 90-65 

Chuck beef pressed at 60° C, 91.90 

Juice from beef chuck at 60° C, 89.56 

Juice pressed from sirloin steak and 

water, 91.10 

Juice extracted from sirloin steak by 

cold pressure, ' 96.13 

Juice e.xtracted from beef chuck byj 

cold pressure, 96.58 

Juice extracted from beef chuck by 

cold pressure after six hours at 60° 

to 100° C, 








M 


"', 









z 







H 


H 






OS 


a 


Di 


% 


'% 


0.38 


1. 00 , 


•44 


.69 


•25 


.c6 


•44 


^•3i 


2.63 




1-25 


1.13 


Trace 


None 


Trace 


None 


Trace 


•75 



MISCELLANEOUS PREPARATIONS (MEAT EXTRACTS, JUICES, 

POWDERS). 

{From Bulletin No. 114, Bureau oj Chemistry.') 

Class I. 



Name of Preparation. 





PS 




w 




!- 




H 




< 








^ 




U 














< 


Z 


^ 


kS 


% 


% 


14-75 


39-75 


43-39 


16.09 


27.82 


17-31 


90-93 


1-34 



E- a 
5 





6 






* 


c^S 




u 





D fc: 






s 

EL, 


►J CJ 

n ►J 


< 




u 5 

1 = 


% 


% 


22.19 


2.06 


22.06 


7-56 


28.63 


1. 19 


5-07 


.19 



Bouillon Capsules, 

Bovril, Seasoned, 

Beef Jelly, Mosquera Extract of Beef,. 
Essence of Beef, 



% 

5.80 
3-87 
7-53 



Class II. 



Predigested Beef, 

Soluble Beef, - 

Bovox Essence of Beef 

Johnson's Fluid Beef, 

American Brand Extract of Beef, 

Bovinine Concentrated Beef, 

Essence of Mutton 

Liquid Food (extract of beef, mutton, and 
fruits), 



91.69 


.18 


.96 


1. 19 


.06 


30-15 


14-55 


5-46 


37-76 


3-19 


65-77 


17.29 


2.91 


16.57 


.19 


47.22 


• 9.80 


4.86 


31-75 


7-56 


27-54 


34-73 


5-91 


26.69 


1.81 


80.40 


1-55 


1.22 


14.14 


3-3« 


82.03 


2.25 


1.62 


12.00 


.69 


86.09 


•65 


1. 21 


10.69 


1-94 



*The sum of insoluble and coagulable proleids, proteoses, and peptones. 



NATURE OF THE DISEASE. 



567 



Miscellaneous Preparations (Meat Extracts, Juices, and Powders). — {Continued.) 

Class III. 













6 













* 




u 








H 


t^ 




< 






H 


< 


a 


f5 S 


PQ 


Name of Preparation. 




< 

►J 
< 


< 



« 


0-1 

5 -i 








a 


H „• 




D P5 






H 


H 
Z 


ac 


< 


s ►^ 


< 




^ 


S 


^^ 


C 









% 


% 


% 


% 


or 
/(J 


% 


Maggi's Bouillon, 


56.56 
45-13 


21.94 
3-52 


4.10 
2.08 


2.13 
22.20 


•13 
1.38 


5-83 
9.89 


Peptonized Beef, Rose, 





Class IV. 



Beef Extract and Vegetable Tablets, ! 22.29 

Leube-Rosenthal's Beef Solution, I 7 

Malted Meat Extract of Beef, 

Beef Peptonoids, 



22.29 


23.66 


4.76 


18.87 


10.56 


72.68 


3-91 


2-54 


16.13 


9.88 


8.61 


7.87 


.84 


9.82 


7.69 


5-72 


S-63 


. -35 


23-32 


20.19 



3-15 

1-34 
1.40 
1.22 



Unclassified. 







pi 
W 

1= 




Q 

D 
< 






Name of Preparation. 


H 


< 
g 


< 





a 






z 

•< 


g 

U 
>< 






err 
/c 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


Carnine Co., Lefranco, Paris, France; Imported 














by Fougera & Co., Agts., New York, 


24.80 


.86 


.09 


-33 


47-50 


14.2 





DIET IN DIABETES. 
Nature of the Disease. — There is one disease of quite common occurrence 
concerning which there is practically a unanimity of opinion among medical 
men respecting the character of the diet which should be observed by the pa- 
tient, namely, diabetes. In this disease the metabolism of the s}-stem is so 
changed that the urine contains a greater or less quantity of sugar. The sugar 
which is found in the urine is not the ordinary one, but is dextrose, the prod- 
uct which arises from the complete inversion of starch by means of an acid. 
Dextrose also constitutes half of the product produced by inverting cane 
sugar with an acid or a ferment. Occasionally levulose, a sugar identical 
with dextrose chemically, but different as to structure (turning the plane of 
* The sum of insoluble and coagulable proteids, proteoses, and peptones. 



568 infants' and invalids' foods. 

polarized light to the left instead of the right), is found in the urine instead of 
dextrose. Diabetes is regarded by most diagnosticians as pecuHarly a disease 
of disordered metabolism, more so even than rheumatism or gout. The pres- 
ence of sugar in the urine is in itself a matter of consequence, inasmuch as it 
implies a disturbed metabolism, since normal urine does not usually contain 
even a trace of sugar. Hence the presence of any amount of this substance 
indicates a very serious disorder of nutrition or disease of the kidne3-s. In 
other words, the body has lost the power of oxidizing sugar. Inasmuch as 
the sugar secreted is dextrose, it has been thought by physicians generally 
that to control the fot)d in such a way as to diminish the quantity of material 
capable of forming dextrose would be a rational treatment. A moment's 
thought will show that the exclusion of food containing dextrose or dextrose- 
forming material may not at all be a remedy for the disease, although it may 
offer a probable way of controlling to some extent the principal symptoms by 
very considerably diminishing the quantity of sugar excreted. 

Sources of Sugar. — Von Noorden has noted that sometimes beer-drinking 
produces sugar in urine, but he was not sure whether it was maltose or grape 
sugar. He has also noted that there is often an approximately proportional 
relation between glycosuria on the one hand and decomposition of protein on 
the other. That sugar can be formed from protein is shown by the following 
experiment : 

(a) Tliree days' diet with much meat and no carbohydrates gave 48.2, 56.7, 
57.1 grams of sugar in the urine. 

(b) Three days with vegetables gave 30.2, 11.9, 2.1 grams. 

(c) Five days of vegetables with 300 grams of meat per day gave 7.8, 
22.8, 33.5, 36.7, 48.3 grams sugar. 

(d) Two days' diet of vegetables alone gave 8. i grams and a trace of sugar. 

Proteins may yield from 40 to 50 percent of their own weight of glucose. 

Those which are made up of amino acids, e. g., casein, are the ones to pro- 
duce sugar in the body. The transformation into sugar occurs when the organ- 
ism is in need of carbohydrates. Feeding alanin to a diabetic patient caused a 
large percentage of sugar to appear in urine. Feeding with casein is accom- 
panied with the most marked degree of glycosuria, legumes (peas, lentils, 
beans) standing next in this particular, while egg-albumen and the protein 
of cereals have the least power of producing glycosuria. 

In severe cases of diabetes it is suggested to forbid casein and limit the 
amount of meat to be eaten. There are even a few cases of diabetes in which 
more sugar is excreted than can be accounted for by the decomposition of 
carbohydrates and meat, and therefore it is thought probable that the sugar 
comes from the fat. Since by far the larger part of man's food is of carbo- 
hydrate nature, it is difficult to entirely eliminate that class of foods from the 
diet. The greater the intensity of diabetic disturbance, the greater the amount 



GLUTEN FLOUR AND GLUTEN BREAD. 569 

of carbohydrate that is excreted unused in the urine. Nevertheless nearly all 
authorities agree that it is advisable in the treatment of diabetes to exclude, 
in so far as possible, starch and sugar from the diet. 

Duering has proposed a "rice" cure. The theory of using this very rich 
carbohydrate is based on the principle that to Hmit the diet of carbohydrates 
to one particular kind is of as much importance as to exclude carbohydrates 
completely. This idea, however, has not been generally accepted. 

In Lusk's "Science of Nutrition" it is stated that sugar must arise from 
either protein or fat. Piliiger claims that fat metabolism is the principal 
source of sugar in diabetes. It has also been shown that protein breaks up 
into amino acids in the intestines, and that such acids when ingested are 
equivalent in metabolism to protein itself, and may be converted into dextrose. 

Cause of Diabetes. — It is not to be inferred that the use of foods con- 
taining starch and sugar, from which dextrose is usually formed, is in any 
sense the cause of the disease. This cannot be the case, because were it so, 
every individual would suffer from this trouble, since starch and sugar con- 
stitute the principal weight of the dry foods of man. Furthermore, Von 
Noorden shows that whole races, e. g., those in northern climes and also numer- 
ous groups of animals, which use hardly any carbohydrates for food, excrete 
sugar in their urine. These people and animals subsist almost entirely on 
animal food, and yet sugar is being continually produced and conducted to 
the tissues. Nevertheless, the common treatment of diabetes is generally 
accompanied by the administration of a di^t in Avhich starch and sugar are 
excluded as completely as possible. The principal starchy foods are well 
known, namely, rice, potatoes, and the cereals. The non-starchy foods are 
represented principally by meat or plant ^products in which the nitrogenous 
element is largely developed, such as certain parts of wheat, peas, and beans. 
But even the wheats which are richest in gluten contain always much larger 
quantities of starch than they do of nitrogenous elements. If patients crave 
a sweetened food, ievulose may be used, or even saccharin, which, as has been 
already stated, is not food at all. 

Gluten Flour and Gluten Bread. — To increase the quantity of gluten in 
bread and diminish the amount of starch, for use of diabetic patients, a gluten 
flour is manufactured, which is produced by washing or removing in some way 
from ordinary flour a very considerable percentage of its starch. In this way 
the percentage of the nitrogenous matter is increased, and for practical dietetic 
purposes in the treatment of diabetes should not be less than 35 or 40 percent. 

Standard for Gluten Flour. — The standard for gluten flour has been fixed 
by the Secretary of Agriculture as follows: "Gluten flour is the clean, 
sound product made from floiu- by the removal of starch and contains not less 
than five and six tenths (5.6) percent of nitrogen and not more than ten (10) 
percent of moisture." 



57° 



INFANTS AND INVALIDS FOODS. 



Many advertisements have been published of gluten flour and gluten bread 
which are extremely false and misleading. The examination of man}- samples 
of so-called gluten flour has shown that the quantity of gluten therein con- 
tained was no greater than that of an ordinary rich glutinous wheat. It is 
evident that the buyer is wholly misled in such cases, and if a gluten bread is 
really advantageous to a diabetic patient, the benefits expected would certainly 
not be reahzed. Examples of the composition of real gluten flour and so- 
called gluten flour which is nothing more than good rich wheat flovu- are given 
in the following tables: 

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF TRUE AND OF SO-CALLED GLUTEN 

FLOURS. 
Gluten and Diabetic Flottr. 



Name. 



Gum gluten (Hoyt's), 

Educator standard gluten flour, 

Gluten flour, 40 percent, 

Self-raising gluten flour, 40 percent. 

Pure gluten flour,* 

20 per cent, gluten flour, 

Pure gluten flour, giutosac, 

Gluten food, 

Protosac, 

Washed gluten flour, 

Giutosac, 

Diabetic biscuit flour, 

Plasmon meal, 

AHeuronat, 



Roborat, 

Wheat protein, 

Energin from rice,. 
Vegetable gluten,.. 

Casoid flour, 

Sanitas nut meal,. , 
Soybean meal,. ... 
Almond meal, . 



Gluten flour, 

Gluten flour, 

Diabetic flour, 

Jireh diabetic flour, . . 
Special diabetic food,. 

Gluten flour, 

Gluten flour, 



*II.2 

*ii-3 
*io.<; 

t7-8 
t 8.8 
t 7-2 
t 8.9 
t 8.0 

*IO.I 

*io.6 

* 6.2 

*IO.I 

t 7-9 

T10.9 

t 8.5 

10.9 

t9-5 
t8.6 

t9-i 

* 7-9 
*io.o 

* 3.0 

* 7.8 

* 8.5 

' *I2.7 

t 9-2 

tlo.7 

* 9-3 

*I2.0 
§13-0 

II 8.6 



0.96 

•95 
0.51 
1.2 

1-3 
.6 



.22 

.66 

.80 

1. 14 

2.04 

7.61 

.89 

.70 

1-39 
1. 10 
1.03 

.65 
2.46 
2.17 
4.4 
6.4 

•43 
1.90 

.46 

1.30 

^•93 

55 



31.8 
26.4 
40.25 
41. 1 

38-7 

78.8 

21.0 

35^2 

85-4 

36.6 

62.40 

34.06 

75-25 
78.65 
86.1 

73-65 

82.2 

84.1 

83-7 
61.37 

85-56 
29.00 

39-87 
50.62 

11-37 

15-5 

12.0 

14-3 
14.25 

13-3 



1.29 16.4 



1-55 

1.67 

1.18 

I.I 

1-3 

•9 

•7 

.60 

•56 
.86 
.91 

1-57 
8.96 
2.72 

•51 
.24 

3-67 
1.40 

4-54 

1-55 

•50 

51.66 

19.06 

15-63 

.90 
2.6 

.46 
2.21 
2.96 
1.05 
3-15 



33 

37 

0.15 



•27 
•32 

2.01 
3-85 



•25 

•25 
1.03 

1-37 



54-15 
59-38 
47-42 \ 

47-9 / 

50.1 

12.6 

68.2 

55-0 

3-69 
51-03 
29.51 

52-13 
5-89 
00 
4.00 \ 

14-55 / 

3.00 

4.80 

.67 

28.23 

00 

12.13 

25.09 

15.90 

74-38 
70.8 

76.45 
71-95 
67.47 
72.11 
70.60 



Calo- 
ries. 



1732 

1695 
2078 
1692 
1705 



1877 
1576 



1714 
1663 



It is evident from the analytical data that the last seven products are only common 
wheat flours. 

* Rep't Conn. Agr. Exp't Station, IQ06. 

t Fetterofl, Examination of Some of the Diabetic Foods of Commerce. 
J Konig, page 535. |! Blyth, Foods and their Analysis. 

§ Bull. 13, Part iX, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dep't Agr. 



A DIET FREE FROM STARCH AND SUGAR NOT PRACTICABLE. 571 

Gluten Bread. — The separation of starch from flour and the making of 
bread from the residue was first introduced by Bouchardat in 1841. Many 
cook books give recipes for making bread from flour of this kind. The gluten 
flour may be prepared in the home, and it is, as a rule, much safer to prepare 
it in this way than to buy it on the market, because it can be used in the moist 
state as soon as made. The starch can be washed from wheat flour by a 
simple process of kneading, using pure cold water for a wash. After the dough 
is made it is worked with the fingers, or with proper machinery, and water 
added from time to time, thus washing out the starch. It is better to do the 
kneading in a vessel the bottom of which consists of a fine gauze which will 
permit the particles of starch to pass through but will retain the gluten. The 
washing may be continued until the wash water ceases to be white and prac- 
tically all the starch is removed. The residual dough can then be baked into 
bread. Usually, however, gluten flour is not entirely free from starch, and 
perhaps it is not advisable, for the reason which has already been stated, 
namely, that starch is a normal constituent of the food and its complete with- 
drawal produces an abnormal state of nutrition which may do more damage 
than a small amount of starch. There is a simple test for the presence of 
starch in a gluten flour known as the iodin reaction, and due to the fact that 
a solution of iodin mixed with a starch produces a deep blue color. This is an 
extremely delicate test, however, so that a very small amount of starch might 
appear to be very large when tested with this Reaction alone. 

Instead of using the gluten obtained from wheat flour, other albuminous 
substitutes have been proposed, such as the soy bean, almonds, cocoanuts, 
and Iceland moss. Experience has shown, however, that patients soon tire 
of bread made from gluten flour or any of its substitutes. Many physicians 
have therefore given up its use altogether, prescribing a standard diet free 
from carbohydrates, and allowing a small amount of good ordinary bread, 
which is much more palatable and of which the patient dees not tire. It is 
usually advised that the bread be well toasted. Seme physicians, instead of 
prescribing the white bread, use the various forms of Graharn bread or brown 
bread, made from either the whole grain or that from which only a portion of 
the bran has been removed. 

Impracticability of Securing a Diet Entirely Free from Starch 
and Sugar. — It would be practicallv impossible to secure for man a diet 
entirely free from starch and sugar. Even lean meats contain sometimes as 
much as i percent of a sugar-producing substance, and the best of the glu- 
ten flours and gluten breads contain very notable quantities of starch. Soy 
beans, when ripe, are supposed to contain no starch, and would prove a val- 
uable food for diabetics if sugar were not formed from their protein. Most 
cf the nuts are also very low in carbohydrates, as sho\\'n in the following 
table: 



572 



infants' and invalids' foods. 
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF NUTS.* 



Kind of Nut. 



Butternut,. 
Brazil nut, 

Pecan, 

Hickory,.. 
Filbert,... 
Cocoanut,. 
Almonds,. 
Pistachio, . 
Walnut,... 
Chestnut, . 



Water. 



4-5 
4-7 
3-4 
3-7 
5-4 

13.0 
4.9 
4.2 
3-4 

43-4 



Protein. 


Fat. 


27.9 


61.2 


17.4 


65.0 


12. 1 


70.7 


154 


67.4 


16.5 


64.0 


6.6 


56.2 


21.4 


54-4 


22.6 


54-5 


18.2 


60.7 


6.4 


6.0 



Carbohydrates. 



Starch 

AND 

Sugar. 



Fiber. 



3-4 

5-7 I 3-9 

8-5 I 3-7 

II. 4 

. "-7 

13.7 j 8.9 

13.8 ! 3.0 
15.6 

13-7 i 2.3 

41-3 I 1-5 



Ash. 



3-0 
3-3 
1.6 
2.1 
2.4 
1.6 

2-5 

3-1 
1-7 
1.4 



Fuel 
Value 

PER 

Pound. 



Calories. 

3370 
3120 
33CO 

3345 
3100 
2805 
2895 
3250 
3075 
1140 



The chestnut contains considerable amounts of starch, and is therefore not 
adapted for this purpose. Peas and beans also contain large quantities of 
starchy matter, and various vegetables, which contain little starch, are found 
to carry a considerable percentage of sugar. It is impracticable, therefore, 
and perhaps undesirable, to secure a diet for diabetic subjects which is entirely 
devoid of sugar and starch, for it is the total carbohydrates which must be 
considered and not wholly the starch. Moreover, an extraordinary change in 
the character of the diet, which would be represented by a nonsugar-non- 
starch ration, would probably be of more injury to the digestive system by 
far, even of a diabetic patient, than a ration containing a normal amount of 
these substances. For this reason it is not only impracticable, but also unde- 
sirable, to secure a ration which is devoid of the sugars and starches. 

Professor Osborne, of Yale Medical School, says: "I have not a doubt that 
many a patient with diabetes mellitus has been hurried to his grave by rigid 
starch-free diets. I also believe that the fact that most so-called starch-free 
gluten foods contain starch has allowed many a diabetic to live months longer 
than a starch-free diet would have allowed. An absolute withdrawal of car- 
bohydrates from the food of patients having true diabetes mellitus will always 
increase the acetone and diacetic acid, and often the ammonia and /3-oxy- 
but\Tic acid, and toxic acidemia and com.a become imminent. Hence, it is 
unjustifiable, sugar having become discovered in the urine, to withdraw the 
starches absolutely or too rapidly from the diet." 

Test Diet for Determining Toleration of Carbohydrates. — In Osier's 
"Practice of Medicine" t attention is called to the fact that in the case of a 
diabetic patient the first duty of the physician is to ascertain the capacity for 
tolerating carbohydrates, meaning thereby particularly sugar and starch. This 
should be determined by placing the subject for at least five days on a diet 

* Jaffa, Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 28 and 332, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
t Reprinted from Osier's The Principles and Practice of Medicine, copyright, 1909, hy 
D. Appletofi & Co. 



TEST DIET FOR DETERMINING TOLERATION OF CARBOHYDRATES. 573 

from which starch and sugar are rigidly excluded, that is, a diet consisting 
exclusively of protein and fat. The quantity of food given, in case it can be 
tolerated, should be a generous one, that is, approximately 40 calories for 
each kilogram of body-weight. A diet based on the recommendations of 
Von Noorden which would secure the desired result is as follows: 

Breakfast: 7.30 a.m. 150 grams of beefsteak or mutton-chops without bone; 

two boiled or poached eggs; 200 c.c. of tea or coffee. 
Lunch: 12:30 p.m. 200 grams cold roast-beef, mutton, or chicken; 60 

grams celery, fresh cucumbers, or tomatoes, with 5 c.c. vinegar, 10 c.c. 

oil, pepper and salf to taste; 20 c.c. whisky (if desired); 400 c.c. of 

water or ApoUinaris water; 60 c.c. coffee. 
Dinner: 6 p.m. 200 c.c. clear bouillon; 200 grams roast l^eef; 60 grams 

lettuce with 10 c.c. vinegar; 20 c.c. ohve oil, or three tablespoonfuls 

of some well-cooked green vegetable, as spinach; three sardines a 

I'huile; 20 c.c. cognac or whisky (if desired), with 400 c.c. ApoUinaris 

water. 
Supper: 9 p.m. Two eggs, raw or cooked; 400 c.c. ApoUinaris or Seltzer 

water. 

It is further advised that "with the four meals at least 15 grams of butter 
should be used in making the gravies and with the eggs. No milk or sugar 
is permitted with the tea or coffee, but saccharin may be used to sweeten them. 
The time of taking lunch and dinner, of course, may be reversed. This daily 
diet should provide a person of 60 kilos (132 pounds) with a httle over the req- 
uisite 2400 calories for an individual of that weight. One precaution must 
be emphasized here. If the patient has been eating freely of starches, these 
must be cut down slowly for two or three days before he is placed on the 
standard diet. Any sudden and ^adica^ change from one diet to another is 
liable to induce coma. As it has been found that a dog must fast five days 
before the glycogen of his liver has been all used up, it is well to keep the dia- 
betic on the above diet for at least five days; by so doing it practically elimi- 
nates the possibility that any sugar excretion at the end of that time is de- 
rived from the stored-up glycogen of the liver." 

Inasmuch as a diet entirely free of starch and sugar is not a normal diet, and 
hence should only be used in case of necessity, it is advisable to find out how 
much carbohydrate a diabetic patient can tolerate without unduly increasing 
the quantity of sugar in the urine. For this purpose, after the treatment above 
mentioned, small quantities of bread, preferably bread made from white 
flour, may be used. A well baked loaf of white bread contains approximately 
55 percent of starch. Only 25 grams should be given for the first few days, 
and if the sugar does not reappear in the urine, or is not increased in quantity, 
another 25 grams may be added, and so on until the symptoms of glycosuria 
develop. The degree of tolerance, therefore, may be expressed in the form of a 
formula as follows: Tolerance equals standard diet plus x grams of starch. 



574 infants' and invalids' foods. 

X representing the number of grams of starch the patient can take as deter- 
mined experimentally, without sugar appearing in the urine. 

Dietaries Recommended by Von Noorden.— Von Noorden, one of the 
most eminent authorities (,n (Habetes, in his work entitled "Disorders of Meta- 
bolism and Nutrition,"* divides foods intended for diabetic patients into 
two classes: (i) Those food products which are practically free from carbo- 
hydrates, and which should form the base of the daily diet. (2) Certain ac- 
cessory articles of diet which include substances containing more or less car- 
bohydrates. The use of these accessory articles is based on the fact that it is 
necessary not only to prescribe a diet which has some specific relation to the 
disturbance, but which will also conserve, or tend to conserve, the general 
health. As carbohydrates are such an important part of a normal diet, it is 
not a safe plan to continue too long a diet from which they are entirely excluded. 

Standard Test Diet. — The standard test diet is prescribed by Von Noorden 
as follows: 

Breakfast : 200 grams coffee or tea with one to two tablespoonfuls of thick 
cream. 100 grams of hot or cold meat (weighed after cooking). Butter. 
Two eggs, with bacon. 50 grams of white bread. 

Lunch: Two eggs cooked as desired, but without flour, or any other hors 
d'oeuvre free from flour. Meat (boiled or roasted), fish, venison, or 
fowl, according to taste, about 200 to 250 grams altogether (weighed 
w^hen cooked). Vegetables, such as spinach, cabbage, cauliflcnver, or 
asparagus; prepared with broth, butter, or other fat, eggs or thick sour 
cream, but without any flour. 20 to 25 grams creamy cheese (such as 
Camembert, Brie, etc.); plenty of butter. Two glasses of light white 
or red wine, if desired. One small cup of coffee, with one to two table- 
spoonfuls of thick cream. 50 grams of white bread. 

Dinner: Clear meat soup, with egg or green vegetable in it. One to two meat 
dishes, as at lunch. Vegetable dishes, as at lunch. Salad of lettuce, 
cucumber, or tomatoes. Wine. No bread. Drinks during the day 
(exclusive of wine), one to two bottles of aerated water. 

This test diet is intended to reduce the sugar excretion to a minimum and is 
preliminary to a more generous diet in which bread is included if the sugar 
excretion is not too greatly increased 

Oatmeal as a Diabetic Food. — Von Noorden has recommended as a food 
for diabetic patients in certain cases oatmeal, or rather a gruel made from 
oatmeal. The use of this substance was the result of an accidental obser- 
vation. A number of patients, in addition to diabetes, were suffering with 
severe disturljances of the stomach and the lower intestine. For this trouble 
they w^ere confined to a diet consisting exclusively of oatmeal gruel. The 
observations in these cases showed that the amount of sugar in the urine was 
diminished during the continuance of this diet. The oatmeal, of course, is 
not used alone; as prescribed by Von Noorden, it consists in the daily admin- 
istration of from 200 to 250 grams of oatmeal, best given in the form of gruel, 
* Published by E. B. Treat & Co., New York. 



USE OF THE SOY BEAN. 575 

every two hours. In addition to this, 200 to 300 grams of butter are prescribed, 
and about 100 grams of a vegetable proteid, or for this a few eggs may be sub- 
stituted. No other food is allowed except black coffee or tea, lemon juice, good 
old wine, or a little brandy or whisky. This diet has not been found entirely 
satisfactory by many other authorities, nor does Von Noorden urge it for all cases. 
The oatmeal, of course, contains considerable quantities of starch, but it is starch 
of an entirely different kind from that of wheat or rye, the usual bread 
diet of civilized nations. The inference is that the starch of the oatmeal does 
not act so injuriously as that of wheat or rye. Von Noorden makes the follow- 
ing statement in regard to the oatmeal diet: "Unfortunately, however, there 
are only relatively few cases in which the result is quite so surprisingly bene- 
ficial; in many others it is incomplete, although still satisfactory; in others, 
again, no result at all is obtained." The best results were found in- very 
severe cases when there was a large excess of sugar in the urine. On the other 
hand, the treatment was almost always a failure where only a slight amount 
of sugar was found in the urine. 

Other starchy foods which have been recommended are the potato and rice, 
each having its protagonist among reputable authorities, based upon the sup- 
position that both the potato starch and the rice starch are far less injurious 
than rye starch or the wheat starch found in ordinary breads. 

Water and Other Beverages. — It is the general consensus of opinion that 
it is injurious to restrict the quantity of water which a diabetic patient is al- 
lowed to use. The fact that the drinking of a considerable amount of water 
increases the volume of the urine is perhaps a favorable, rather than an un- 
favorable, symptom. Thirst is a very common symptom in diabetes, and it 
should be allayed by plenty of pure water. Many physicians recommend 
mineral, or bottled, waters. An occasional change from a pure spring- water 
to a bottled water may be advisable, but on account of the cost, which is often 
a matter of importance, it may be said that pure spring-water, as fresh as can 
be had, will serve all purposes. Lemonade may also be used, but if a sweet 
taste is craved it must be produced by the addition of saccharin and not by 
sugar. It is better by far to ignore the craving for sweets than to gratify it with 
such a questionable substance as so-called "saccharin." 

Osier recommends the use of whisky, brandy, and rum on the ground that 
it aids in the digestion of fat and tends to make up for the loss in heat-units 
resulting from the cutting off of carbohydrates. 

Use of the Soy Bean. — Dr. Julius Friedenwald and Dr. Ruhrah, in the 
Proceedings of the One Hundred and Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Medical 
and Chirurgical Faculty of Maryland, held at Baltimore on April 26, 1910, 
recommend the soy bean also as a diet in diabetes. Eight cases of diabetes were 
treated with this food, and the conclusions which were reached were as follows: 

I. The soy bean is a valuable addition to the dietary of the diabetic on ac- 
count of its palatability and the numerous ways in which it can be prepared. 



576 



infants' and invalids' foods. 



2. The soy bean in some ways causes a reduction in percentage and total 
quantity of sugar passed in diabetic subjects on the usual dietary restrictions. 

The following recipes for broths and muffins made from the soy bean are of 
interest in this connection: 

Broths. — Add from i to 8 ounces of the flour to one cjuart of beef, mutton, 
veal, or chicken broth and boil for tiftcen minutes, adding water to make up 
for loss by evaporation; or, boil the same quantity of the soy flour for one- 
half hour with one quart of water, to which has been added a piece of ham, 
bacon, or salt pork to give flavor. Each ounce of the flour will add to the 
broth about 13 grams of protein and 120 calories, or, in percentages, add 1.4 
percent protein, 0.60 percent fat, and 0.30 percent carbohydrates. A broth 
made with 6 ounces of the soy flour to the quart would be half as rich in protein 
and fat as steak. 

Muffins. — To make muffins from the soy flour, take i^ teacupfuls of the 
soy flour, \ teacupful of wheat flour, \ teaspoonful of salt, 2 eggs, i teacupful 
of sweet milk, 2 rounded teaspoonfuls of baking powder, and i^ tablespoon- 
fuls of melted but not hot butter. Beat well together, adding the melted butter 
last, and bake in gem pans in a hot oven. This will make about 12 muffins, 
which will contain about 150 grams of protein and which will yield about 1800 
calories, of which the carbohydrates produce Ijut 280. 

Foreign Diabetic Foods. — Tatterolf has collected a number of foreign 
diabetic foods, the composition of which is shown in the subjoined table. 



COMPOSITION OF FOREIGN DIABETIC FOODS. 



Material. 



% 
10.25 

6-95 
7.20 
7.48 
7.90 
5-42 
4.20 
Prolactic biscuit, j 6.34 



Casoid flour, 

Casoid dinner rolls, 

Casoid biscuit, No. i (plain), 

Casoid biscuit. No. 2, 

Casoid biscuit. No. 3, 

Casoid rusks, 

Casoid lunch biscuit, 



Water. 



Kalari biscuit,. 

Kalari batons, 

Almond biscuit (plain), 

Almond short breads, 

Ginger biscuit + saccharin (trace), 

Cocoanut biscuit + saccharin (trace),. 

Gluten bread (French), 

Conalbin-Mehl No. i (diabetic flour), 



6.3T 
8.13 
3.66 
4.20 

2-45 
2.63 
7.78 
9.42 



Ash. 



% 
2.50 
1.84 
2-53 
3-59 
4-95 
4-47 
3-77 
3-95 
3-70 
4.40 
3.20 
3-51 
3-69 

1.29 
0.52 



% 

1:61 

11.08 

16.78 

25-51 
25.02' 

32-33 
44.87 

27-51 
31-43 
33-70 
28.02 
52.11 
58.62 
61.28 
2.36 
0-39 



% 
82.50 
78.00 
64.75 
57-81 
54-31 
36.98 

25-53 
42.9T 
56.88 
52.88 
28.34 

19-54 
17.06 
16.61 

35-94 
10.88 



00" 



% 

3-14 

2.13 

8.74 

5.61 

7.82 

20.80 

21.63 

19.29 

1.68 

0.89 

36.78 

20.64 

18.18 

16.35 
5263 
78.79 



>0' 



SftiS 



Calories. 
1661 
1918 
2075 
2256 
2211 

2439 
2771 

2317 
2400 
2422 

2394 
2946 
3129 
3199 
1747 
1684 



GENERAL DISCUSSION ON DIET IN OBESITY. 



577 



The casoid preparations, it is claimed, are made from milk, vegetable albu- 
min, and eggs. They contain only small quantities of carbohydrates. Many 
of the products, it is seen from the table, contain such large quantities of carl^o- 
hydrates as to render them, theoretically at least, undesirable for diabetic 
patients. 

DIET IN NEPHRITIS. 
Importance of Diet. — The various forms of inflammation of the kid- 
ney are designated by the general term nephritis. The diet in the case of 
nephritis is almost as important as in the case of diabetes. Von Noorden 
is particularly insistent that foods which tend to produce increasing quantities 
of hippuric acid in the urine should be excluded in ajl cases of nepliritis. 
He says : 

Hippuric acid, as is well known, is generated from benzoic acid and glycocol 
by a synthetic process in the kidneys themselves. In nephritis, particularly 
in the more acute forms, this synthesis is rendered more difficult, so that a 
proportionately large part of the benzoic acid that is ingested, or that is formed 
within the body and enters the blood, leaves the kidneys unchanged, or in the 
form of a salt. The other component, glycocol, under these circumstances 
is also in small part excreted unchanged. The greater proportion that under 
normal circumstances would have been converted into hippuric acid, is con- 
verted into urea, and is excreted as such. While it is not known that the ex- 
cretion of benzoic acid is a particularly difficult task when the kidneys are 
diseased, or that benzoic acid can directly damage the kidneys, we should 
nevertheless, from the standpoint of proteetive therapy, prevent the entrance 
of benzoic acid into the blood-stream circulating tlirough the diseased kidneys, 
for when we overload the blood with benzoic acid we impose a task on the 
sick kidneys that they are not capable of performing. We can easily avoid this 
irritation and this stimulation of the organ if we regulate the diet in such a 
manner that as little benzoic acid as possible circulates in the blood. From 
this point of view green vegetables, fruit containing kernels, and cranberries 
that contain large quantities of benzoic esters, should not be permitted in 
acute inflammation of the kidneys. In such fruit as pears and apples, and in 
many berries (particularly raspberries and grapes), on the other hand, we 
find traces only of benzoic acid; those fruits, therefore, and Syrups made from 
them, constitute an excellent addition to the diet of nephritic cases, for they 
are borne very well, they stimulate digestive processes, and offer some variety. 



DIET IN OBESITY. 
General Discussion. — It should be understood that obesity is not a disease 
or a disturbance of the digestive system. It is rather a disturbance of the gen- 
eral metabolism in which the fats formed from the food consumed are not 
properly oxidized or burned in the tissues, but are deposited as such. The 
disease which causes obesity may, however, originate in the over-stimulation 
of the digestive organs through excessive eating. In many instances this 
38 



578 infants' and invalids' foods. 

over-stimulation does not result in the taking on of an undue amount of fat, 
while in others the fat-forming habit develops as any other disease would 
develop in similar circumstances. 

A diet which is properly consumed and expended by one individual, and 
which would keep that person in a lean condition, would in another produce 
the opposite effect, namely, obesity, which tendency may be transmitted by 
heredity, and might be characterized as an inborn error of metabolism. 

The capacity of the body to utilize food materials in its economy differs 
in each individual, depending on numerous factors (worry, excitement, 
climate, occupation, habits, etc.). When food is supplied in excess of this 
capacity, it is stored in the body chiefly as fat. 

The literature on 'patent and secret remedies is full of so-called cures for 
excessive fat. I do not believe that any of these claims are founded on a scien- 
tific basis. If the patient loses in weight under the influence of these drugs, 
it is due to a disturbance of the digestion caused by the action of the drug. 

Hare's Dietary. — Hare, in his work on "Practical Therapeutics,"* recom- 
mends the following dietary in cases of obesity: 

The food of the patient suffering from obesity is to be cut down gradually, 
and the character of it arranged so that, though its bulk be great, its nutritive 
properties are small. Beef and other meats are concentrated foods containing 
much nourishment in a small bulk, while lettuce, spinach, cabbage, and nearly 
all vegetables, except roots or tubers, contain a large amount of fiber useless 
to the body. By the use of a carefully arranged vegetable diet in obesity we 
cut down the actual amount of food absorbed, and by its bulk keep the stomach 
so busy at sifting the nutritious from the non-nutritious materials that hunger 
is not felt, because another meal-time is reached almost before the food of the 
first is assimilated. We find, therefore, that the diet for the reduction of cor- 
pulence should consist chiefly of bulky vegetables, but not too exclusively 
of any one article or set of articles. Heretofore it has been thought that pro- 
teids (meats, eggs, etc.) should be used to take the place of all hydrocarbons, 
or carbohydrates (fats, starches, and sugars), but this is not physiologically 
correct, as both forms of food are always needed for health, and it has been 
found that proteids may be converted into fats in the body. The following bill 
of fare will be found of service in the treatment of obesity. 

Breakfast: One or two cups of coffee or tea, without milk or sugar, but 
sweetened with a fraction of a grain of saccharin. Three ounces of toasted 
or ordinary white bread or 6 ounces of bran bread. Enough butter may be 
used to make the bread palatable — not more than one ounce. Sliced raw 
tomatoes with vinegar or cooked tomatoes without any sugar or fats. This diet 
mav be varied bv the use of salted or fresh fish either at breakfast or at dinner. 
This fish must not be rich like salmon or sword-fish, but rather like perch or 
other small fish. 

Noon meal (dinner): One soup-plate of bouillon, consomme. Julienne, or 
other thin soup, or Mosquera's beef- jelly, followed by one piece of the white 
meat of any form of fowl or a small bird. Sometimes a small piece, the size 
of one's hand, of rare beef or mutton, but no fat, may be allowed, and this 

* Published by Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia. 



QUANTITY OF FOOD. 579 

should be accompanied by string-beans, celery (stewed or raw), spinach, kale, 
cabbage, beans, asparagus, leeks, and young onions. Following this, lettuce 
with vinegar and a little olive oil (to make a French dressing), a cup of black 
coffee or one of tea, and a little acid fruit, such as sour grapes, tamarinds, and 
sour oranges or lemons, may be taken, and followed by a cigar or cigarette. 

Supper should consist of one or two soft-boiled eggs, which may also be 
poached, but not fried, a few ounces of bran bread, some salad and fruit, and 
perhaps a glass or two of light, dry (not sweet) wine, if the patient is accustomed 
to its use. 

Before going to bed, to avoid discomfort from a sensation of hunger during 
the night, the patient may take a meal of panada, or he may soak Graham or 
bran crackers or biscuits in water and flavor the mass with salt and pepper. 

The reduction of diet is generally best accomplished slowly, and should be 
accompanied by measures devoted to the utilization of tlie fat present for the 
support of the body. Thus the patient should not be too heavily clad, either 
day or night, should resort to exercise, daily becoming more severe, and should 
not drink freely of water, unless sweating is established sufficiently freely to 
prevent the accumulation of Hquid in vessels and tissues." 

Fats in the Diet for Obesity. — The fats of the food are more readily 
oxidized and are a more immediate source of energy than carbohydrates and 
proteins, both of which are sources of fats in the body. I believe, in spite of this 
capacity for utilizing energy which is readily supplied by fats, that it would 
be harder to retard the development of corpulency if the diet contained a 
great amount of this constituent. Therefore, fats as well as carbohydrates 
should be excluded as far as possible from tlie diet in cases of obesity. 

Effect of Sugars and Starches. — It is generally held among physiologists 
that the sugars and starches are more disposed to produce corpulency than the 
fats,, and lean meats, and vegetables poor in sugar and starch. In selecting a 
diet to correct overweight, it is advisable to exclude therefrom all bodies which 
are excessively rich in starch and sugar. It is manifestly impossible and un- 
desirable, under ordinary circumstances, to secure a diet in which neither 
sugar nor starch is found; but it is possible to so modifv a diet that it may 
contain less starch and sugar, and be richer in nitrogenous' matters, such as 
are represented by peas, beans, lean meats, etc. 

Quantity of Food. — Having so modified the diet the next step is to limit 
it to the smallest quantity that will preserve health. The best remedy for 
obesity is hunger, but the use of this remedy requires great force of will and 
strength of character, so that it is not easy to secure volunteers for this kind of 
treatment. If the patient is really in earnest about reducing his weight, and 
every one who is overweight should be, there is no method which can be recom- 
mended, not injurious to health, that is so effective as the limitation of the 
diet. Having chosen a diet poor in starch and sugar, it should be limited to a 
small number of calories per day, not exceeding, for the average man, 2ocx) 
to 2500. 



580 infants' and invalids' foods. 

Utility of Exercise. — A very efficient method of aiding in the reduction 
of weight, as noted in Hare's dietary, is by judicious exercise. It has been 
urged as an objection to exercise that this itself increases the desire for food. 
Of this there is no question, but we are assuming in this instance that the 
patient has will power enough to Hmit his food to the small quantities men- 
tioned. If this be the case, the conjunction of proper exercise with a limited 
diet will hasten the cure. I have nothing to say here respecting the character 
of the exercise, except that it should be such as to bring into action as manv 
muscles of the body as possible, but not be too violent nor too long continued. 
Exercise increases the katabolic activities of the body; in other words, it 
implies the consumption of a greater amount of heat and energy. This heat 
and energy must either come from the food itself, or from the tissues of the 
body. The object of the exercise, conjoined with the limited diet, is to oxidize 
and thus remove the excessive cjuantities of tissue. 

Gradual Loss of Weight. — Attention should be called, of course, to the 
danger of extreme depletion. The limitation of the diet and the vigor of the 
exercise should not be carried to such an extreme as to actually induce the 
perils of starvation. In all cases it is better to lose flesh slowly than suddenly. 
A gradual loss of overweight will leave the body still in excellent condition, 
with all the organs gradually becoming accustomed to the diminishing weight. 
The result will be that when the normal weight is finally reached, all the 
organs of the body will be in a healthy state, the appetite will be under control, 
and the patient will be able to maintain the condition of equilibrium. This 
will assist in preventing a recurrence of the deposition of fat, which otherwise 
will readily take place if the diet be again increased and the exercise dimin- 
ished. The normal weight for a man six feet high may be assumed as 190 
to 200 pounds, and the body will be more ef^ctive for both mental and physi- 
cal work if it is not saddled with a handicap of excessive fat. The most im- 
portant point, aside from the general directions given, is to avoid the antifat 
nostrums and the theories of unscientific enthusiasts. We are already a nation 
•largely addicted to the taking of drugs, and the amazing virtues of remedies 
for all physical and mental ills are heralded b}- one's friends and by adver- 
tisements ad fiiiiiiim. As before stated, these remedies rarely, if ever, are 
efficacious in reducing weight and they may be harmful. 



DIET IN TUBERCULOSIS. 
Nature of the Disease and Importance of Diet. — Tuberculosis is a 
disease which in its most common form attacks the tissues of the lungs, but 
there is scarcely any part of the body, not even the bones, that is exempt from 
its ravages. Modern investigations have [)laced it among the infectious dis- 
eases, the specific cause of the disease being the tubercular bacillus, which 



DIFFERING OPINIONS AS TO CHARACTER AND AMOUNT OF FOOD. 58 1 

is introduced into the system through either the lungs or the digestive organs. 
The vigorous and well-nourished body is able to withstand an infection of this 
kind and to destroy the infecting germ before it succeeds in effecting lodg- 
ment. If, on the contrary, the infecting organism is introduced into a system 
of low vitalitv and small resistance, it finds an easy lodgment and develops 
rapidly. In all cases of tuberculosis one of the first symptoms, after the disease 
has become estabhshed, is the progressive loss of weight, due to disturbed 
metabolism or inability to digest or assimilate food products. Accompanying 
the loss of weight there is nearly always a distinct rise of temperature amounting 
to as much as 2 degrees during the day, in the early stages of the disease, and 
returning to normal by morning. Hence the "hectic flush" often observed 
in the case of consumptives. The daily rise of temperature is an important 
index as regards both diagnosis and treatment. 

E.xercise is strictly controlled in certain sanitoria. Sometimes when the 
patient is first admitted he is put to bed or compelled to sit absolutely quiet 
the whole time. Later he is allowed a prescribed number of turns on the porch, 
and the amount of exercise is gradually increased or decreased, and the diet 
modified as the indices of improvement, namely, weight and temperature, 
change for better or worse. 

It has for many years been one of the most important studies of the medical 
fraternity to establish a system of diet in tuberculosis which would add addi- 
tional power to the system for overcoming, through its own efTorts, the ravages 
of the disease, localizing the infection to particular tissues, and preventing 
its spread. While it is probably impossible to effect a complete cure of tuber- 
culosis unless treatment is begun in its earliest stages, it is undoubtedly 
possible to check its advance and so nourish and support the system as to 
prolong life for an indefinite period, ^mong the sanitary aids which are 
emploved for this purpose living in the open air and a proper diet are the most 
important. 

Differing Opinions as to Character and Amount of Food. — The greatest 
difference of opinion is found among the medical fraternity in regard to the 
diet to be recommended. In some instances a strictly vegetable diet has 
been prescribed, and in others an exclusive meat diet. Milk, and also milk 
and eggs, have been highly recommended. Formerly, alcohol was supposed 
to be a means of limiting or restricting the disease, but this view is no longer 
held by most competent authorities on the subject. A deficiency of lime in 
the food has also been mentioned as a possible factor in Causing tuber- 
culosis. 

Lately a theory of treatment has gained much vogue which is based on the 
overfeeding idea. The principle involved is that if the appetite alone be con- 
sulted, the patient will not eat a sufficient amount of nourishing food to secure 
the desired result. As long, therefore, as the digestive organs remain capable 



582 INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. 

of discharging their functions, the utilization of the extra energy of these 
organs has been applied to a restoration of a state of health in the diseased 
organs. Very good results have been secured in many cases by overfeeding, 
that is, by forced feeding, so to speak, the patient being required to swallow 
more food than his appetite demands. Naturally, the foods selected for this 
purpose are those which are most digestible and best suited to secure the end 
in view. Milk, eggs, bread, fruit juices, sour milk, fermented milk, meats 
of healthy animals, butter and other edible fats, including oils, have all been 
recommended to a greater or less extent. 

Forced Feeding in Normal Individuals. — It is of interest to compare 
the effects of forced feeding on individuals in normal health with those of 
similar methods in cases of impaired metabohsm, a condition which usuallv 
attends tuberculosis. English scientists connected with the Brompton Hos- 
pital have made a study of the effects of forced feeding on normal individuals, 
and the following results are recorded by Bardswell, Goodbody, and Chapman, 
in the "Journal of Physiology" for 1902: 

1. A marked increase in the amount of nitrogen excreted. 

2. A diminution in the absorption of fat. 

3. No diminution in the absorption of nitrogen. 

4. A rapid and large gain in weight, which was in every case associated 
with marked impairment of general health. The chief symptoms resulting 
from the overfeeding were loss of appetite, nausea, dyspepsia, drowsiness, 
abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea. 

5. The weight gained was rapidly lost on return to ordinary feeding. 

Results of Experiments on Tubercular Patients. — Many investiga- 
tions have been made in England resi)ecting the effect of diet on tubercu- 
losis, both as a means of amelioration and arrest. Important studies have been 
carried out at the Brompton Hospital of diets of different types and magni- 
tudes. The typical diets employed are shown in the following tabular state- 
ment : 

ORDINARY DIET. 

(Per Day. P. = Protein; F. = Fat; C. H. = Carbohydrates.) 

Milk (pints) , 3 

Cooked meat, oz 3 

Cooked bacon, " i 

Butter, " I 

Bread, " 8 

Sugar , " I 

Cooked vegetables,.." 4 

Rice pudding, " _. 5 

Nutritive value (appro.ximately) : 
P. V. C. H. Cals. 

115 121 240 2590 



RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON TUBERCULAR PATIENTS. 583 

MODERATELY LARGE DIET. 

Milk (pints), 4 

Bread, oz 6 

Cooked meat, " 7 

Cooked vegetables, . . " 4 

Butter, '• 2 

Cooked egg, " i 

Cooked bacon, " 1.5 

Sugar, " 2 

Rice pudding, " 5 

Grapes, " 4 

Nutritive value (approximately): 
P. F. C. H. Cals. 

160 179 271 3442 

VERY LARGE DIET. 

Milk (pints), 5 

Cooked chicken oz 4 

Cooked bacon, " 2 

Eggs " 2 

Butter " 24 

Bread, " 11 

Sugar ,. " ^ 3 

Rice pudding, " 5 

Cooked vegetables, " 6 

Fruit (grapes and figs),. ." 8 

Somatose, " .' 3 

Lactose, " i 

Nutritive value (approximately) : 
P. F. C. H. Cals. 

271 231 390 5026 , 

The conclusions which were drawn from the experiments in the Brompton 
Hospital are as follows: 

1. The patients made very satisfactory progress both clinically and experi- 
mentally when the ordinary diets tirst prescribed to them were somewhat in- 
creased; in short, when treated with moderately large diets. 

2. These comparatively large diets were especially well borne by patients 
much below their weights. They did not give such satisfactory results in 
patients up to weight and with arrested disease. The patients made much 
less satisfactory all-around progress on the very large diets than on the diets 
of considerably smaller nutritive value. 

3. Weight was gained in nearly CA-ery case, in some to a very large extent 
and very rapidly, but this gain of body-weight was not associated with any 
more satisfactory progress in the tubercular lesion than was obtained with the 
smaller diets; on the other hand, general health suffered consid,erably, as in- 
dicated by failure of appetite, marked digestive and intestinal derangements, 
and in one case vomiting. 

4. In spite of the fact that. the clinical conditions of the patients observed 
w'ere widely diiiferent, and that the digestive system in at least two of the pa- 
tients was obviously impaired, the digestion and absorption of both nitrogen 
and fat were uniformly good. This was so even in the case of patients with 
high fever. The absorption of fats was excellent, although very large quan- 



584 infants' and invalids' foods. 

titles were sometimes given; e. g., with an intake of 231.3 grams, 96.4 percent 
was absorbed. 

5. It was noticeable that the patients complained least of digestive discom- 
fort on the diets that gave the best results experimentally. 

6. With regard to the nitrogen: When the amount of proteid in the diet was 
much increased, it resulted in: 

{a) An increased excretion of nitrogen out of all proportion to the increased 
amount retained in the body. 

(h) A diminution in the percentage of nitrogen excreted as urea, and con- 
sequently an increase in the percentage amount excreted in a less oxidized 
form, indicating diminished nitrogen elaboration. 

(c) Diminution in the percentage of nitrogen absorbed. 

id) An increase in the amount of aromatic sulphates excreted, indicating 
increased intestinal putrefaction. 

Economy of Feeding.— It is evident that if cheaper foods are found to be 
just as nutritious and just as efficacious in cases of tuberculosis and other 
diseases, it is highly important, for the sake of the poor, that the prescribed 
diet should cost as little as possible. In view of the fact that meat is the most 
expensive article of diet, studies have been made of meat-free diets and meat- 
rich diets, both as to efficiency and as therapeutic agents, and also as regards 
comparative merit of nutrition. The general results of these investigations 
show that there is much to be said on both sides. The weight of medical 
opinion, however, inclines to the opinion that a diet reasonably rich in meat 
is to be generally preferred. In such matters the same instructions should 
govern as those relating to the removal of the patient to a different locality. 
As is well known, one of the most frequent remedial agents suggested to the 
patient is a change of climate, and also, incidentally, a change of surroundings, 
of friends, and of physicians. Such advice may be valuable to those who are 
able to follow it, but in very many cases it is utterly impossible, for financial 
reasons, for the patient to be removed to a different locality. Often very good 
results are obtained by changing one's habits of life, sleeping out of doors, etc., 
without leaving one's home. In the same way, when the patient can afford it, 
the best possible diet, irrespective of its cost, should be provided. But if this 
is not practicable, the very best diet within reach of his means should be se- 
cured, and a practically meat-free diet may yield very satisfactory results 
at much less cost. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of a Meat-free Diet. — Comparative 
statistics have been compiled by English scientists on the economy of different 
methods of feeding in cases of tuberculosis, and the advantages and disad- 
vantages of each. 

The advantages of a meat-free diet observed by the English authorities 
are as follows: "The great advantage of a meat-free diet is its small cost. For 
example: The meat-free diet taken by patient i, which had a nutritive value 



ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF A MEAT-FREE DIET. 585 

of proteid 175, fat 146, carbohydrate 550, cost 27.5 cents a day. If all the pro- 
teid given in the form of pulse in this diet had been replaced by proteid in the 
shape of meat, the cost of the diet would have been increased to 42.5 cents a 
day, an extra cost of 55 percent." 

The same authorities have studied particularly the disadvantages of a 
meat-free diet, and their conclusions are as follows: 

There are certain serious disadvantages in an entirely meat-free diet. In 
the first place, a diet such as we used, namely, one in which the proteid is 
given chiefly in the form of pulse, is, of necessity, of a bulky character. 

The large bulk of these meat-free diets, as compared with a diet containing a 
similar amount of proteid from animal sources, is due to the fact that although 
uncooked meat and pulses have approximately the same proteid value, meat, 
in the process of cooking, loses water, whereas the pulses, by the time they are 
fit for eating, have taken up water to the extent of twice their own weight. For 
example, a sirloin contains in its uncooked condition roughly 20 percent of 
proteid, but when cooked, owing to the loss of water, its proteid value rises 
to 28 percent. On the other hand, the average percentage composition of 
pulses, as regards proteid, is about 23 percent in the .uncooked condition, but 
after the absorption of water during cooking, the percentage composition only 
amounts to a little over 8. To secure any given amount of proteid, a bulk 
of vegetable food is required some four times as great as would be necessary 
if animal food were used. This fact is a great practical obstacle to the 
more general use of vegetable proteid in dietaries for consumptives. It is 
sometimes found a difficult matter to get patients with normal appetites and 
digestions to take a sufficiently large diet when the pulses are relied upon as 
the source of proteid. This difl&culty experienced in the case of patients with 
good appetites, etc., becomes a matter of impossibility when dealing with 
patients with marked anorexia. 

Another disadvantage of these meat-free diets is the difficulty of making 
them sufficiently appetizing. To make a diet of pulses really palatable re- 
quires considerable skill in cooking, a skill which the average working-class 
housewife does not possess. Unless handled and A-aried with considerable 
care, a diet made up largely of pulses is somewhat insipid, and lacks the flavor 
and variety of the ordinary meat diet. Further, prejudice and custom, espe- 
cially amongst the lower classes, are opposed to the adoption pf a largely vege- 
table diet, but the feeling in favor of a meat diet is perhaps not so strong as it 
used to be. 

Another objection to the use of a large quantity of pulses in a diet is the rela- 
tively low proportion of it which is absorbed in the alimentary canal as com- 
pared with the proportion of meat which is absorbed. 

We were unfortunately unable to ascertain the exact amounts of the pulses 
absorbed in the case of our patients, but such evidence as we possess, viz., 
the gain in weight, which was rapid, the fact that the amount of nitrogen in the 
urine did not decrease compared with its excretion on an ordinary mixed diet, 
and the excellent clinical results obtained, indicate that at all events intestinal 
absorption was quite satisfactory. 

Metabolic observations of a somewhat limited nature showed that in the 
case of patients with normal alimentary canals, these large meat-free diets 



586 infants' and invalids' foods. 

did not give rise to any intestinal troubles; for instance, regular observation 
showed that at no time was there increased intestinal putrefaction. 
To summarize, then, the results of our observations show that — 

1. Vegetable proteid, as the main source of the daily intake of proteid in a 
diet for the tuberculous, is thoroughly satisfactory so long as a sufficient amount 
of it is taken. 

2. The clinical results obtained, when treating consumptives upon meat-free 
diets of an adequate nutritive value, are often quite as good as the results 
that are obtained when ordinar}- meat diets of similar nutritive value are used. 

3. Owing to the bulky nature of a meat-free diet, its use is restricted to 
patients with normal, or approximately normal, appetites and digestions, and 
is unsuitable for the treatment of those with marked impairment of the ali- 
mentary tract. 

4. The use of vegetable proteid in the place of all the meat usually prescribed 
in an ordinary meat diet effects an economy of some ;^^ percent. 

5. When economy is an object, the necessary proteid in a dietary should be 
given at least in part in the form of vegetable proteid. In the case of individuals 
with normal appetites and digestions, the meat of an ordinary mixed diet can 
be altogether replaced by pulses, but such an entirely meat-free diet is, on 
several grounds, not entirely satisfactory, and should not be used unless very 
strict economy is essential. 

Views of the Illinois State Board of Health.— The following sugges- 
tions made by the Illinois State Board of Health concerning diet in tuberculosis 
illustrate the consensus of medical opinion on this subject at the present time: 

There is no question but that the consumptive needs an abundance of prop- 
erly cooked, wholesome, digestible food, at suitable intervals. But consump- 
tives are often advised to eat more than they should and to eat at too frequent 
intervals, and consumptives are too often "stuffed" with food. It is difficult 
to say how much a consumptive should eat, or how often he should be fed. 
Proper advice cannot well be given in an individual case without due regard 
to the patient's digestive powers, and the adequacy of his kidneys. 

Many, a patient who is losing weight on seven meals a day, will gain if the 
number be reduced to three or four. 

Food shovild not be given to a consumptive, or to any one for that matter, 
while undigested food remains in the stomach. 

The diet must be varied, and it must be borne in mind that a diet suitable 
for one consumpti\'e may prove decidedly unsuitable for another. Individual 
tastes must be consulted. It is essential, however, that the patient be "made" 
to like certain articles of food to which he has formed a dislike, or concerning 
which he has formed wrong notions, — milk and eggs, for instance,— but too 
much should not be attempted at once. 

Many patients, dislike milk, which is an absolute necessity in the dietetic 
treatment of consumption. They say that it makes them bilious and consti- 
pated. Milk does not constipate, except possibly in small "doses." In large 
quantities, i. e., one to three quarts a day, milk is a laxative, and as such is 
much appreciated by persons who have a tendency to constipation. 

Patients will better appreciate the necessity for milk-drinking if it is ex- 
plained to them that one glass of good milk contains as much nutritive material 



VIEWS OF THE ILLINOIS STATE BOARD OF HEALTH. 587 

as two eggs, three ounces of lean meat, sixteen ounces of oysters, one ounce 
of cocoa or cheese, or two ounces of bread. 

If a patient will eat three good meals a day — rare beef or mutton is excellent 
for a consumptive — and drink a few glasses of milk, say three, between meals, 
there need be no great anxiety as to the sufficiency of the diet. But solid food 
cannot be given with safety when the temperature goes above ioi° F. 

And many patients will not eat three good meals. So to those and others 
in the advanced stages of the disease who are losing weight rapidh', easily 
assimilated food must be given at more frequent intervals. Here milk and 
eggs will be found indispensable, alone, or as an adjunct to other food. 

Rut while milk and eggs have helped many consumptives to health, neither 
of these nor any other articles of diet can be taken alone, for any continued 
period. The diet must be varied. 

Sample Dietary. — The following dietary, subject, of course, to changes to 
suit the individual case, will give some idea of the food to be allowed a con- 
sumptive whose digestion is good: 

7:00 A.M. Fruit, cereal, toast and butter. Two raw or soft boiled eggs, 
one or two glasses of milk. 

10:00 A. M. Two glasses of milk, crackers, bread and butter or toast. 

12 :3o p. M. Soup, rare roast beef, or lamb or mutton, or turkey, or steak, or 
chicken, sweetbreads, one or two vegetables, like potatoes, beets, peas, beans, 
corn, spinach, cauliflower, asparagus, turnips. Bread and butter and choco- 
late, coffee or cocoa. A lettuce salad, with olive oil, if the patient likes it. 
Baked or stewed apples, bread pudding, rice, custard, junket, or the like. 
Almonds, walnuts, or pecans, form a valuable, addition to the consumptive's 
diet. 

4:00 P.M. Two glasses of milk, with one. or two eggs. Bread and butter. 

7 :oo p. M. One or two glasses of milk. Two eggs. Bread and butter with 
jelly or jam. Meat may be given with the last meal, especially if the mid-day 
meal was light. Meat should never be cooked twice. 

General Rules in Regard to Ealing. — Food should be eaten slowly, and be 
well chewed. The consumptive must not "bolt" his meals. 

Milk should be drunk slowly. It will be still better if it be sipped. The 
common way of drinking milk, in great sv^-allows, one after another, is the 
principal cause of its being indigestible. The addition of a pinch of salt often 
makes the milk more palatable. 

Eggs should be served in a varietv of ways: raw, light boiled, poached, 
'shirred, baked or hght fried. But thev are best when taken raw. If the pa- 
tient gets a dislike to the taste of eggs, he should swallow them whole. This 
can easily be done by breaking the eggs in a glass, and covering them with 
milk or a little light wine and "tossing it off." 

Butter is very fattening, and it is well for consumptive patients, to partake 
freely of bread and butter, provided always that it does not upset the digestion. 

If the patient is run down, fats should be given him. Butter and cream are 
excellent. So are fatty fish, eels, salmon, and sardines, also vegetables pre- 
pared with a great deal of fats. Give plenty of vegetables. 

Horseradish, vinegar, mustard, lemon juice, etc., tend to stimulate the appe- 
tite. 

Sometimes the digestive system becomes clogged, and the patient shows 



588 infants' and invalids' foods. 

a disgust for food. Here it would be well to cut out eggs and milk for a week, 
and consult a physician, who may prescribe a laxative and a tonic. 

To properly cligest this number of meals, the patient must remain out cf 
doors the greater part of the time. 

Dr. Alfred L. Lcomis gives the following good general rules to follow in 
relation to eating: 

1. Food should be taken at least six times in the twentv-four hours; light 
repasts between meals and on retiring. 

2. Never eat when suffering from bodily or mental fatigue or nervous 
excitement. 

3. Take a nap, or at least lie down, for twenty minutes before the mid-day 
and evening meals. 

4. Take only a small amount of fluid with the meals. 

5. The starches and sugars should be avoided, as also all indigestible ar- 
ticles of diet. 

6. As far as possible, each meal should consist of articles recjuiring about 
the same time to digest. 

7. Eat only as much as can be easily and fully digested in the time allowed. 

8. As long as possible systematic exercise should be taken to favor assimi- 
lation and excretion; when this is impossible massage or passive exercise 
should be undergone. 

9. The food must be nicely prepared and daintily served; made inviting 
in every way. 

Dietary for Those Having Large Appetites. — Dr. Albert P. Francine, 
in his recently published work on "Pulmonary Tuberculosis," suggests the 
following as a full dietary suitable for patients with large appetites and good 
digestion. Naturally small eaters could not follow this without modifica- 
tion, and here is emphasized the necessity for individualization: 

7 A. M. One pint of milk and two raw eggs, taken in bed. 

8:30 A.M. Breakfast. Fresh fruit, cereal, bacon, salmon, herring, or 
tender steak, chop or chicken; dry toast, wheat bread or corn bread; a pint 
of milk or cup of coffee, chocolate or cocoa. 

10 A. M. One pint of milk and one raw egg. 

12:30-1 P.M. Lunch (heaviest meal), preceded by half hour's rest. 
Thick soups — puree of vegetables, especially the albuminous legumen; a." 
roast and vegetables; bread with plenty of fresh butter; simple desserts 
with sugar. 

4 p. M. One pint of milk and one raw egg. 

6 P.M. Supper, preceded by half-hour's rest. Light, simple meal, cold 
meats, light salads, tongue, sardines, etc. Pint of milk, or cup of weak tea, 
or cocoa. 

9 p. M. One pint of milk and two raw eggs. 

9:30-10 P. M. Patient goes to bed. 

The patient will do better if he can have his meals at a table where others 
are eating and enjoying their food. But a consumptive should not be allowed 



NO UNIVERSAL DIET. 589 

to sit at a table with others, unless his hands and face have been carejiiUy 
washed, and unless he is able to suppress his cough while at the table. 

Pleasant surroundings, a cheerful dining-room, an inviting table with a 
clean cloth and napkins, palatable, well-cooked food attractively served, are 
all essentials in the dietetic treatment of consumption. " Lije is not to live, hut 
to be well.''' ■ 

Use of Alcohol. — A few words in conclusion as to the use of alcohol (malt, 
beer, whisky, and the like) in consumption. Alcohol is now very seldom used 
in the treatment of consumption. It is wrong; it is foolish to imagine that 
alcohol has any specific action against consumption. Ordinarily the con- 
sumptive needs no alcohol. Usually he is better off without it. But there may 
be cases where the use of alcohol is permissible. The physician is the best 
judge. Alcohol should never be taken by a consumptive except on the advice 
of the family physician. 

While many competent physicians would take exception to some of these 
directions and physiologists object to some of the principles of nutrition set 
forth, the statement as a whole well represents the results of experience. The 
supreme importance of the necessity of considering each patient separately 
in regard to his diet is well brought out. 

No Universal Diet. — From a careful review of all the material which has 
been collected, it may be said that there is no deiinite svstem of diet which 
can be prescribed in all cases. In every instance the peculiar conditions and 
environment of the patient must be studied, and if a generous diet is decided 
upon, it must be selected with a vie\y to excking the least possible disgust or 
repugnance on the part of the patient. To this end the various nourishing 
foods just mentioned, and many others of like character, may be tried carefullv 
for the purpose of seeing which is tolerated in the largest quantity by the 
patient. This having been determined, the overfeeding may be continued as 
long as there are no distinctly unfavorable symptoms developed. The very 
moment, however, that the digestive organs become so overloaded that they 
themselves become diseased by reason of the overfeeding, it is impossible to 
understand how its continuance could result in any benefit to the patient. This 
is another of the numerous cases in which it is apparent that general theories 
of diet cannot be rigidly apphed in all cases in actual practice. That the 
patient should be nourished goes without saying, and to the greatest possible 
extent, but each case must be studied carefully by a competent physician in 
order to determine the character and quality of the diet best suited to the 
condition and idiosyncrasies of the patient. 



S90 



infants' and invalids' foods. 



ANALYSIS OF INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. 
{Compiled from Various Sources.') 











Carbo- 










Pro- 


F-AT. 


hydrates. 


Ash. 




Name of Food. 


Water. 


tein. 


Solu- 
ble. 


Starch. 


Remarks. 




i 


i 


i 


i 




f 




Albany Food, 


8.60 


9-50 


2.10 


79-40 


0.40 


Much unchanged 
starch. 


Allenbury No. i Food, . 


1.82 


10.70 


16.79 


65-51 


l.IO 


4.08 






5-70 


9.70 


14.00 


66.85 




3-75 






83-30 


1.56 


2.30 


7.20 




0.60 


Ready for use. 


Allenbur>- No. 2 Food, . 


2.24 


10.23 


14.94 


b7-54' 


1.24 


3-81 


A malted meal plus 




3-9C' 


9.20 


12.30 


72.10 




3-50 


No. I Food. 


Allenbury No. 3 Food,. . 


3.00 


IO-33 


1.05 


22.21 


62.91 


0.60 


Partly malted wheaten 




6.50 


9.20 


1.00 


82.80 


0.50 


flour. 


American- Swiss Food, . 


5.68 


10.54 


5-81 


45-35 30-00 


1.21 


Much cane sugar. 


Anglo-Swiss Food, . . . 


6.50 


10.26 


4.91 


46.43 1 29.48 


2.02 


Much cane sugar. 


Bananina 


9-50 


4.10 


0.40 


84.00 


2.07 


A banana flour. 


Benger's Food, 


11.29 


10.43 


1. 10 


9-90 


66.30 


0.96 


Much digested in pre- 
paring. 


Carnrick's Soluble Food, 


5-17 


16.69 


5-53 


28.11 


41.50 


3.00 


Much unchanged 
starch. 


Chapman's Whole Flour, 


8.40 


9.40 


2.00 




79-30 


0.90 


A whole meal flour. 


Cheltine Infant's Food, . 


7.20 


16.20 


3-92 


71.00 


1-83 


Contains much starch. 


Cheltine Maltose Food, . 


4.60 


5-30 


0.27 


87.60 \ . . 


2.25 


Fully malted 


Coomb's Malted Food, . 


7.90 


12.10 


2.80 


76.80 


0.40 


Much unaltered starch. 


Cremalto, 


22.26 
8.30 


6.40 
7.60 


20.26 

1.30 


44.67 
81.70 


1-79 
1.10 


Cream and malt. 


Diastased Farina, . . . 


Carbohydrates said to 














be made soluble in 














preparation. 


Fairchild's Milk Powder, 


5-54 


1.19 


0.05 


92.00 1 . . 


1.22 


Practically milk 


Falona, 


7.00 


8.40 


3-50 


79-9 


1.20 


sugar. 
Cereals and a fat-con- 








taining bean. 


Frame Food, 


7.62 


13.69 


0.44 


22.33 


54-96 


0.96 


Not so rich in minerals 
as claimed to be. 


Franco-Swiss Food, . . 


4-43 


13.00 


3-70 


46.09 


30.86 


1.42 


Much cane sugar. 


Horlick's Malted Milk, . 


2.54 


15.40 


8.87 


69.21 


0.18 


3.80 


Desiccated milk, 50.0; 


(ready for use) Chit- 














wheat flour, 26.25 ; 


tenden, 


92.40 


I-I5 


0.60 


5.38 




0.29 


barley malt, 23.00; 
and sod. bicarb., 0.75. 


Horlick's Malted Food, . 


9.70 


10.43 


0-34 


76.83 


2.20 




Almost completely 
malted. 


Hovis Babies' Food, . . 


3.70 


7.70 


0.20 


86.60 




1.82 


Fully malted. 


Hovis No. 2 Food, . . . 


2.40 


5-7° 


0.10 


90.10 


1.70 


Starch 7.5 per cent. 


Imperial Granum, . . . 


11.50 


10.91 


0.64 


5.73 1 70.22 


1.00 




I. and I. Food, 


5-5° 


10.30 


2.30 


80.50 


1.40 


Mainly starch. 


John Bull No. i Food, . 


3.98 


21.00 


11.87 


54-29 




5-32 


Maltose, 21.32; lactose, 
29.42 ; de.xtrin, 3.55. 


John Bull No. 2 Food, , 


1.68 


11.06 


0.68 


37-65 


43-30 


1-74 


Maltose, 23.31 ; dex- 
trose, 1.32; dextrin, 
5.38 ; lactose, 7.65. 


Kufeke's Infant Food, . 


8.37 


13-24 


1.69 


23.71 


50.76 


2.23 


Made in Germany. 


Lahmann's Vegetable 
















Milk, 


24.40 


7-50 


24.60 


41.80 


1.50 


Made from nuts and 


Loeflund's Cream Emul- 












can be added to milk. 


sion, 


24.32 


8.23 


15-32 


49-43 




2.60 


A thick brown paste 
made from milk and 






















malted wheat ex- 
















tract. 


Maltico Food,' 


2.36 


16.07 


11.80 


65.89 


3-88 


Composed of milk and 




1.63 


15-19 


17.19 


63.00 


2-99 


malted cereals, no 
starch. 


Manhu Infant Food, . . 


8.80 


8.70 


5-60 


7590 


1.00 


Desiccated milk and 
malted cereals, much 
starch. 


Mollin's Food, 


12.37 


10.07 


0.18 


68.18 




3-75 


It is a desiccated malt 




6.13 


7.81 


0.29 


75-65 


6-93 


3-17 


extract from wheat 




6.30 


7.90 


trace 


82.00 




3.80 


and barley 


Milo Food, 


3.81 


14-34 


5-50 


58-93 


15-39 


2.03 


Desiccated milk with 
maltose and dextrins 
27.36, and cane sugar 
25 percent. 


Moseley's Food 


10.84 


14.78 


1.84 


21.76 


49.06 


1.72 


Complete conversion 
during mixing. 


Muffler's Food, 


4.76 


15-19 


5-10 


72.42 


2.43 


Desiccated milk, pow- 




5.63 


14-34 


5.80 


27.41 


44-43 


2.39 


dered white of egg, 
wheat flour and lac- 
tose. 


Neave's Food 


5-0?, 


13.20 


1.70 


4.71 


74-27 


1.09 


Practically all starch. 



ANALYSIS OF INFANTS' AND INVALIDS' FOODS. 
Analysis of Infants' and Invalids' Foods. — {Continued.) 



591 



Name of Food. 



Nichol's Food of Health 
Nutroa Food, 

Opmus Food, 

Ovalline 

Phosphatine, Fallieres, . 



Ridge's Food, 

Robinson's Groats, . . . 

Robinson's Patent Bar- 
ley 

Savory & Moore's Food. 



Scott's Oat Flour, . . . 
Theinhart's Hygiama, . 

Triticumiiia Food, . . . 
Virol 

Well's & Richardson's 
Food, 

Wheat Flour 

Wheat Flour, baked, . . 
Worth's Perfect Food,* 
Dried Human Milk,t • . 



Aylesbury Dairy Co.'s 

Humanized Milks, No. 

i.t 

Aylesbury Dairy Co.'s 

Humanized Milks, No. 

2,t 

Pagefs Perfected Milk 

Food,t 

Gaertner's Fettmilch, t • 
Condensed Whole Milk 

(sweetened) 

Condensed Skim Milk, 
Wells, Richardson & Co. 

Lactated Food,§ . . . 
Charles Martin's Car- 
dinal Food,§ 

Eskay's Albumenized 

Food,§ 

Lacto-Globulin.g . . . . 
Wampole's Milk Food,§ 

Wemalta.§ . 

Triangle Food.g . . . . 
F:nglish Milk Food, 

Malted 

Baby's Own,g 

Christie's Food,? . . . . 

W'yeth's Prepared 

I'ood,? 



11.90 
6.80 



10.90 I 



3-3° 
5-85 



9-23 
10.40 



10.10 
5-34 
8.34 

5.80 
4-75 

8.60 
11.66 
24.04 

7.76 



q.02 
7.78 
2.40 



8943 

8S.3 
88.04 

24.06 
29.23 

6-95 
8.18 

1.70 

9-85 
3-35 



5-75 
6-55 



3-70 
3.00 



Pro- 
tein. 



15-90 
9.10 



12.01 
2-35 



9.24 
U.30 



513 
10.79 
9-63 

9.70 
21.22 

12.50 

6-43 
4.16 

11.85 



1 1. 10 
12.2 



1.08 
1-5 
9-36 
10.73 

9-56 

10.50 

7-25 
71.44 
14.18 
12.31 
12.25 



9-63 

6.50 
14.69 



Fat. 



Carbo- 
hydrates. 



Solu- 
ble. 



Starch. 



1.70 
10.30 



1.98 
1.92 



0.63 
1.60 



0.97 
1.06 
0.40 

5.00 
10.05 

2.20 
19.72 
IO-75 

1.64 



1. 01 
0.41 
2.00 
26.4 



4.0 
3-6 



3.83 
3-2 
11.28 
.64 

0.42 
0-35 

4-95 
0.65 
7.10 

1-35 
1.70 

0.70 
1.05 



3-05 
1.30 



76.90 
66.00 



76.70 
56.68 



5-19 



4.11 
27.81 
44->>3 



61.61 
5925 



5-66 



78.60 



2-57 
31-98 



77-96 
75.00 



77-76 
54-09 
36.36 

78.20 
11-33 



36.43 



76.07 
14.29 1 67.60 
83-^0 
52-4 



Sugar. 



6.82 

6.0 

52.28 

55-69 



29.65 
8-35 

58-65 
11.65 
71.30 
29.70 
3-75 

30-30 
22.80 



51-3!^ 
71.76 
26.47 

74-25 

•■^3-95 
59-39 



35 65 I S'^-io 
68.30 7.21 



Ash. 



1-75 



3-44 
1.22 



1-93 
0.91 



1.30 
3-55 

i.oo 

0.58 
1..S0 



0.50 
2.1 



0.57 

0.23 
0-35 

2-13 

2.63 

1.04 

0.86 

0.98 
8.36 
2.64 
0.78 
0.70 

0.92 
0.5S 



Remarks. 



Mainly starch. 

Cereals plus peanut 
flour; hence the fat. 

A granulated wheat 
flour. 

A Swiss product. 

Calcium phosphate, 
cane sugar and 
starch of potato, rice, 
arrowroot, sago, co- 
coa. 

Mainly starch. 

Ground oats, without 
husk. 

Ground pearl barley. 

Wheat flour and malt ; 
much grape and cane 
sugar. 

A fine oat flour. 

The fat is partly cocoa 
butter. 

Mainly starch. 

The first analysis is 
the one given by the 
makers. 

Partly malted. Con- 
tains much cane 
sugar.and no milk. 



The standard of com- 
position to which 
artificial substitutes 
should conform. 



Requires addition of 
varying amounts of 
milk. 



* This and all preceding analyses are from A System of Diet and Dietetics, by G. A. Sutherland. 

tFrom Food and the Principles of Dietetics, bv Robert Hutchison. 

I From Bulletin No. 185, Inland Revenue Department, Ottawa, Canada. 



592 



infants' and invalids' foods. 



MEDICINAL FOODS. 

{From The Journal oj the American Medical Association for May ii, 1907.) 



Name of Food. 



Carpanutrine, 

Carpanutrine, 

Liquid Peptones, 

Liquid Peptones with Creosote, . 

Liquid Peptonoids, 

Liquid Peptonoids 

Predigested Beef, 

Predigested Beef, 

Nutrient Wine of Beef Peptone,. 
Nutrient Wine of Beef Peptone,. 

Nutritive Liquid Peptone, 

Nutritive Liquid Peptone, 

Panopepton, . . 

Panopepton, 

Peptonic Elixir, 

Tonic Beef S. & D., 

Tonic Beef S. & D., 

Liquid Peptone, 

Cow's Milk (3.8 percent fat), 





W M 




Q M 




Z H 




^5 




gS 




< a 




S§ 


« 


M S 


w 




H 


y w 


< 


3 1^ 


^ , 





% 


% 


61.00 


28.45 


65.60 


21.29 


84.82 


3-63 


77.60 


4-34 


«3-34 


0.23 


81.02 


2.02 


89.67 


3-40 


88.30 


4-37 


68.73 


14.97 


69.90 


13.70 


83-39 


1.02 


82.90 


1-95 


78.00 


2.60 


77.60 


4.86 


81.24 


3.21 


79.72 


12.Q1 


80.33 


12.63 


96.33 


•44 


87.00 





% 

0-93 
1.09 
1. 00 
0-75 
0-93 
0.90 
0.18 
0.19 
0.23 
0.40 
0.84 
0.80 
1. 10 
1. 16 

1-55 
1.61 

1-54 
0.87 

0.07 



% 
4.28 
6.24 
4-50 
3-84 
4-93 
4-53 
2.38 

2-59 
0.64 

0-43 
1.86 
1. 16 
6.38 
(>-33 
2-54 
3-40 
3.28 
1.81 
3-50 



% 

5-34 
5-78 
6.05 

13-47 
IO-57 
11-53 
4-37 
4-55 
15-43 
15-57 
12.89 

13-19 
11.92 
10.05 
11.46 
2.36 
2.22 

0-55 
4.80 



% 

15-S 
17-3 
22.0 
22.0 

17-5 
17.8 
19.7 
19.0 
21.5 
20.9 
23.0 
21.8 
18.5 
20.9 
18.8 
14.9 
16.1 
14.0 



PART XI. 

SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING 
FOOD ADULTERATIONS. 



GENERAL CLASSES OF ADULTERATION. 
Simple Tests. — Many forms of adulteration are easily determined by 
simple tests that anyone, without the training of the professional chemist, 
may practice, using the ordinary apparatus found in the household and reagents 
which are constantly at hand or may be readily obtained at the drug-store. 
This subject has been treated in Bulletin No. loo of the Bureau of Chemistry, 
L^. S. Department of Agriculture, by W. D. Bigelow and Burton J. Howard, 
from both the chemical and microscopical points of view. Whenever these, 
simple tests are applied, the operator should have at hand samples of the same 
articles of known purity, and apply the tests also to them. The results will 
serve as a guide in interpreting the reactions* obtained on the article under in- 
spection. 

SOME FORMS OF FOOD ADULTERATION. 
Gross Physical Adulterations. — Very often certain of the grosser adul- 
terations of foods, as well as others whose detection is somewhat more difficult, 
may be detected by persons who are not trained in either chemistry or mi- 
croscopy. If the adulteration is such that it is apparent to the eye, as, for in- 
stance, the admixture of two or more substances in suflficiently large particles 
to be identitied, the detection is simply a question of ordirrary inspection. 
The admixture of artificial coffee grains resembling generally in color and 
shape the natural coffee grains is a case of this kind, yet the distinctions are 
not always so great that the untrained eye, even by careful attention, can 
easily distinguish them. Many other mixtures of this kind are, or have been, 
on the market, and are generally capable of easy detection. WTien the state of 
subdivision is finer, it is still not beyond the power of the untrained eye to dis- 
tinguish the difference, if an ordinary magnifying glass, which almost everyone 
may get, is used. Thus coarsely ground shells and fruit stones mixed with 
peppers and spices may be detected with a considerable degree of accuracy, 
39 593 



594 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. 

by simple magnification. If, liowever, the detection of the adulteration de- 
pends on special and obscure structural relations, then even the magnifying 
glass or microscope will not reveal to the unpracticed eye the sophistication 
which has taken place. Nevertheless, some adulterated goods have certain 
physical traits, which, while not wholly convincing, may be at least sufficiently 
marked to arouse suspicion. It is advisable, therefore, that every person pur- 
chasing food make a careful study of its appearance; the neatness with which 
it has been put up; the cleanliness of the wrappers; the character of the gen- 
eral surroundings; the physical condition of the food itself; and the label 
which it bears. In fact, all accessories accompanying the food product are 
subjects for careful and patient investigation. 

Chemical vs. Condimental Preservatives. — There are certain preserva- 
tives that respond to simple tests, which, while not absolutely final in the 
hands of a layman, at least may give grounds for a reasonable doubt as to the 
purity of the goods in question. 

Certain condimental substances commonly exercise preservative effects to 
a limited extent, although they are not classified in the list of chemical pre- 
servatives. Among these may be mentioned the ordinary substances used 
to give flavor and character to food products, both fresh and preserved, such 
as salt, sugar, vinegar, spices of all kinds, essential oils, brandy, and smoke. 
These substances are recognized by physiologists and experts as having valu- 
able qualities which render their use in food wholly legitimate. They tend es- 
pecially to act- upon the nerves of taste and smell, and thus to excite through 
these nerves the activity of the organs of the body that secrete the digestive 
ferments, without which the digestion and absorption of the food are 
impossible. While these substances if taken in very large qyantities may 
be capable of exerting a deleterious influence, as may any food for that matter, 
they belong to an entirely diff'erent class from those preservatives which have 
neither taste nor smell and which cannot possibly be of any value in the 
process of digestion. The argument is frequently made that a chemical 
preservative which has neither taste nor smell is no more harmful than one 
of the condimental preservatives, such as common salt, and, therefore, if 
common salt be permitted, which is known sometimes to have injurious effects 
when used in excessive quantities, the chemical preservative should be ad- 
mitted, provided it is not used in large quantities. The argument is not 
logical, and has no weight whatever when analyzed in the proper way. 

Artificial Colors.— Another form of adulteration which may be detected 
sometimes without much difficulty is the use of artificial colors. The presence 
of these is excused by some writers on the ground that they come to the aid of 
digestion through the optic nerve, just as taste comes to its aid through the 
gustatory and odor through the olfactory nerve. There is some reasonable 
ground for this statement. It is true that the foods appeal to us very strongly, by 



OBSOLETE ADULTERATIONS. 



595 



their color, provided the color is a natural one. When, however, it is known 
that the color which is seen in the food is of artificial production, it loses its 
esthetic appeal as well as its exciting eif'ect upon the digestive organs. Its 
value, therefore, depends wholly on deception. The eilect which is produced 
on the mind by a known artificial color in foods is rather one of disgust than 
of pleasure. Especially is this true since the vegetable colors, which are the onh- 
ones natural in foods, have been so largely supplanted by the artificial colors 
produced by chemical means. It follows, I think, without contention, that if 
we admit artificial colors at all in foods they should be of vegetable origin. 
The question of the propriety of admitting them has both a legal and an ethical 
aspect. The coloring of foods is illegal if it conceals inferiority or is in any way 
deceptive. The coloring of foods is contrary to the esthetic instinct if it is 
glaring, assertive, and intense. Usually in attempts to imitate a natural color 
in foods by artificial tints, Herod is out-Heroded, and the final tint is usually 
much more intense than that which nature paints. The general efiect, there- 
fore, of artificial colors is to affront the artistic nature of the consumer, and thus 
any possible benefit which could have come from the use of the tint is dis- 
counted. The only case in which it is tolerable to use artificial colors is in those 
compounded foods which of themselves have no natural color and which may 
be made, by tinting with a harmless color especially of vegetable origin, to 
appeal to the eye of the consumer. There are, however, very few foods of 
this kind, and I am strongly of the opinion that the eye would be better pleased 
in the majority of cases if all artificial colors w^ere excluded from foods. There 
could not possibly any harm come to the consumer, and a great deal of good 
would be accomplished. To the real connoisseur there is nothing more re- 
pellent than to sit down to foods gorgeously and inartistically tinted and be 
expected to eat them with relish and enthusiasm. 

These three forms of adulteration, namely, mixing, preserving, and coloring, 
are the most common forms, with perhaps the exception of the extraction of 
some valuable ingredient, or the addition of a neutral or inactive substance 
to dilute the strength of the natural product. 

Obsolete Adulterations. — There are many forms of adulteration which 
are believed to exist, and which perhaps did exist once, that have not been 
practiced in this country, to any extent, for many years. In this category 
may be mentioned the old fable of the addition of sand to sugar, of gypsum 
and terra alba to flour, and of alum to bread. Flour has been adulterated 
in other ways, however. As stated in connection with diabetes, a great deal 
of so-called gluten flour is only ordinary flour with an exceptionally high con- 
tent of crude protein. There has also been a large amovmt of adulteration 
by mixing two or more flours and calling the product by the name of the more 
e.xpensive constituent, as, for instance, buckwheat made partially of rye or 
oat flour or both. 



596 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. 

This brief summary of the common forms of aduheration is not intended by 
any means to exhibit the whole range of adukerated products, but to serve 
only as an introduction to some of the simple methods of detection. 



MATERIALS AND REAGENTS. 
Definitions. — The term "reagent" is applied to a chemical or an agent of 
some kind, by means of which definite chemical changes are produced which 
are more or less easy of observation. Some of the materials used in making 
simple tests, such as will be described, are as follows: 

1. Turmeric Paper. — This is an ordinary white filter-paper made of pure 
fiber which has been cut into strips, dipped in a tincture of turmeric, and dried. 
It has the characteristic color of the turmeric itself. 

2. Alum. — There are several alums which may be used for chemical pur- 
poses. The ordinary iron, potassium or ammonium alum may be used for all 
simple tests. 

3. Hydrochloric Acid. — This is a substance which is usually called "muri- 
atic acid," and can be obtained at any drug-store. All tests in which hydro- 
chloric acid is used should be conducted in glass or stoneware, as this acid 
will attack many metals, such as iron, tin, zinc, etc. It does not, however, 
attack silver or gold. Care must be exercised not to spill any of the acid over 
the skin or clothing, as it will burn both. 

4. lodin. — The ordinary tincture of iodin of the drug-store is used. 

5. Potassium Permanganate. — These bright colored crystals, which give 
a purple red solution, can be obtained at any drug-store. Dissolve about one 
part of the crystals in 99 parts of water. 

6. Alcohol. — Pure alcohol, whether distilled from grain or other sources, 
can be used. 

7. Chlorojorm. — The ordinary reagent used for producing anesthesia is em- 
ployed. 

8. Boric Acid or Borax. — This is a very common chemical, kept in almost 
every house. 

9. Ammonia Water. — This is the very common reagent kept for cleaning 
ptirposes, especially for removing grease spots. 

10. Halphen Reagent. — This is a reagent by means of which cottonseed cil 
can be detected. In this case it would be advisable to have the reagent pre- 
pared by the druggist according to the following formula: Dissolve one-third 
of a teaspoonful of finely divided sulphur in from three to four ounces of carbon 
bisulphid and mix the solution with an equal volume of fusel oil (amyl-alcchol). 
This reagent must be used with as much care as gasoline, as it is very inflam- 
mable. 



SACCHARIxV. 597 

TESTS FOR DETECTING CHEMICAL PRESERVATIVES. 

Boric Acid. — Boric acid or borax may be easily detected when present 
in such commodities as sausage, butter, or milk, in which it was ofte'n used 
before the enactment of the Food and Drugs Act. If the boric acid is in meat, 
a small sample should be rubbed thoroughly with a little water, which dis- 
solves a large part of the preservative, and the liquid filtered to remove the 
solid matter. In the case of butter a teaspoonful is placed in a cup with double 
the quantity of hot water, which will melt the butter. After melting, the con- 
tents of the cup are well stirred with a teaspoon and set aside in a cool place 
until the butter solidifies. The butter will be attached to the spoon and can 
be lifted out, the remaining liquid being strained through a white cotton cloth 
or filter-paper. It is not necessary that all the liquid should pass through, but 
only a sufficient quantity to get the test. In the case of milk, two or three 
tablespoonfuls are mixed with twice that quantity of a solution of a teaspoonful 
of alum in a pint of water, shaken vigorously, and filtered. 

Applying the Test. — About a tablespoonful of the liquid, obtained by treating 
the sample as just described, is placed in a dish with fi\e drops of h\drochloric 
acid. A strip of turmeric paper is dipped into the liquid and afterward re- 
moved and held in a warm place, but not warm enough to char the paper, 
until dr}-. In the case of the presence of boric acid or borax, the turmeric 
paper assumes a bright cherry-red color on drying. If now a drop of ammonia 
is added, the red color changes to dark gre^n cr greenish-black. This test 
will be found satisfactory even in the hands of a beginner. 

Benzoic Acid. — Among the substances most frequently preserved with 
benzoic acid may be mentioned tomato catsup as well as mincemeat, certain 
fruit juices, etc. In acid media, such as catsup, the benzoate of soda is decom- 
posed and free benzoic acid is produced. If any considerable quantity of 
benzoate of soda has been used in tomato catsup, it can be detected by setting 
aside in an ordinary dish in a warm place, as, for instance, near a radiator, 
covering to keep out the dust, and allowing to stand for a few days, so that the 
evaporation goes on very slowly. As the concentration takes place beautiful 
lamellar crystals of benzoic acid are formed. These sometimes grow up from 
the magma to the height of a half inch or even more. If the content of benzoic 
acid is very small, it may be extracted by acidifying and shaking with chlo- 
roform and then be set aside in a cool place to evaporate. The chloroform 
should be subjected to only a gentle temperature, so that the evaporation may 
be slow. The characteristic appearance of the lamellar crystals as before in- 
dicates the presence of benzoic acid. 

Saccharin. — Saccharin is a very sweet substance prepared from coal-tar 
and has been used largely for sweetening purposes instead of sugar. One part 
of saccharin is said to have as much sweetening power as 400 to 500 parts of 



598 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING EOOD ADULTERATIONS. 

sugar. Saccharin has some preservative power also, but is never used solely 
for this purpose, the preserving influence being only incidental. In the detec- 
tion of saccharin the substance containing it, which is usually a liquid, is 
shaken with chloroform, which settles to the bottom and is removed by means 
of a medicine-dropper. The saccharin enters into solution in the chloroform, 
while sugar, if present, does not. The chloroform solution is then evaporated 
by heating gently, and if saccharin has been present the residue has a dis- 
tinctly sweet taste. This method is not applicable to substances whose chloro- 
form layer contains a flavor that would mask the sweet taste of the saccharin, 
as, for instance, ginger ale. 

Salicylic Acid. — Sahcyhc acid at the present time is scarcely used at all 
in this country in preserving foods. It was formerly found in the same class 
of foods which are now preserved by benzoic acid. The detection of salicylic 
acid is a very simple matter. Solid and semi-soHd foods, such as jelly, should 
be mixed with sufiicient water to make a thin liquid. In the case of food 
containing insoluble material, such as jams, after macerating for some time 
the liquid portion may be separated by straining through a piece of white 
cotton cloth. A gentle heat may be used, if desirable, during the macerating 
process. Two or three ounces of the liquid obtained as described are placed in 
a narrow bottle holding about 5 ounces with about a quarter of a teaspoonful 
of cream of tartar, or, better, if at hand, a few drops of oil of vitriol (sulphuric 
acid). The mixture is well shaken for two or three minutes and again filtered 
into a second bottle. To this filtered liquid three or four tablespoonfuls of 
chloroform are added and the contents mixed by a vigorous rotary motion. 
After well mixing, the contents of the bottle may be poured into an ordinary 
glass tumbler and allowed to stand until the chloroform settles to the bottom, 
it being heavier than water. Shaking should be avoided as much as possible, 
since it causes an emulsion of the chloroform with the water which is difficult 
to break up. The chloroform layer contains the salicylic acid, if any is pres- 
ent, and should be removed from the aqueous hquid by means of an ordinary 
dropping tube, or a glass tube with a small opening and a bulb, into which the 
chloroform can be sucked. This chloroform mixture is placed in a small tube 
with a little water and a smaU fragment, not much larger than a pinhead, 
of iron alum. The contents of the tube are thoroughly shaken and again 
allowed to stand until the chloroform settles to the bottom. If salicyHc acid 
is present, the upper portion of the liquor will assume a purple or purplish 
color. 

DETECTION OF ARTIFICIAL COLORING. 
Copper. — The presence of copper in foods is very easily detected. It is 
usually employed only for the purpose of producing an intense green color in 
goods which are naturally green, such as green beans, peas, etc. In this case, 



TURMERIC. 599 

add a drop or two of hydrochloric acid, mix thoroughly, and place a bright 
steel knife-blade in the solution. If copper salts are present, copper, easily 
recognized by its reddish color, will be deposited upon the knife-blade. If it 
is not desired to coat a knife-blade, a bright iron or steel nail will serve the 
same purpose. 

Caramel. — Caramel is often used to color freshly made distilled liquors 
so as to give them the appearance of great age. It is also employed to simulate 
the natural colors in flavoring extracts, such as vanilla, and in fact is very com- 
monly used whenever it is desired to produce a red or brownish-red color in 
food products in general, both solid and liquid. Caramel is produced by 
heating sugar to a high temperature until it is partially decomposed. In this 
condition sugar to a great extent loses its sweet taste and its solubility in water. 

To detect caramel two test-tubes or small bottles or phials of equal size and 
shape are employed, and two or three tablespoonfuls of the suspected sample 
are placed in at least two of these bottles. To one is added a teaspoonful of 
fuller's earth, which can be secured 3.t any drug-store. The mixture is thor- 
oughly shaken for two or three minutes and filtered tlirough filter-paper, the 
first portion of the filtered Hquid being returned to the filter-paper and the 
sample finally replaced in the original test-tube or bottle. The filtered liquid 
is compared with the untreated sample, and if the former has lost a good part 
of its color, it may be taken for granted that the color of the original article 
was largely due to caramel, since this body is removed to a large extent by the 
fuller's earth. 

This test is a little more difficult than those which have preceded it, and, of 
course, would not be conclusive in the case of bodies which contain natural 
caramel; in other words, such as are prepared in any way with sugar which 
is subjected during the process of manufacture to a high temperature capable 
of converting a portion of the sugar into caramel. For instance, in the drying 
of malt the heat is often such as to partially char the malt, and the products 
made from this malt, such as malt vinegar, might show the presence of caramel 
when it had not been added thereto. Again, in the roasting of coffee a consid- 
erable quantity of caramel is produced by the action of heat on the sugar 
which the coffee bean contains. Hence, the presence of caramel in roasted 
coffee would not be evidence that it had been added as an adulterant, or 
otherwise. 

Turmeric. — Turmeric is often used to give a yellow color to such prepara- 
tions as mustard, especially if the mustard has been adulterated with flour or 
other white substances. In this case it has been quite a common practice to 
restore the color of the mixture to the normal yellow color of the mustard 
meal itself, and turmeric is one of the most common of the coloring-matters 
used for that purpose. In the detection of turmeric, a teaspoonful of the sus- 
pected sample is thoroughly stirred with a smafl quantity of alcohol and the 



6oO SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. 

mixture is allowed to stand for fifteen minutes, or until there is a distinct 
separation — the turbid or solid matter settling and leaving a practically clear 
liquid above it. This alcoholic solution is then poured into a clean glass or 
bottle. About one-third of a tablespoonful of the liquid thus prepared is 
used for the experiment and is placed in a clean dish and mixed with four or 
five drops of a concentrated solution of boric acid or borax and about ten drops 
of hydrochloric acid, by stirring well with a splinter of wood. A wedge-shaped 
strip of filter-paper, about two or three inches long, one inch wide at the upper 
end, and one-fourth inch at the lower end, is then suspended in the liquid so 
that the narrow end is immersed in the solution, and is allowed to stand for 
two or three hours. If, while the paper is suspended in the liquid, air is allowed 
to circulate around the mixture, it is better. If turmeric is present, a cherry-red 
color forms on the filter-paper a short distance below the upper hmit to which 
the liquid is absorbed by the paper, and at times an inch or more above the 
surface of the liquid itself. A drop of ammonia changes this red color to a 
dark green, as in the case of the test for borax just described. In fact, the test 
for turmeric, as is seen, is exactly the same as the test for borax, the only differ- 
ence being in the unknown substance to be determined. 



DETECTION OF SOME COMMON ADULTERANTS. 

Cottonseed Oil. — Cottonseed oil has been one of the most common adul- 
terants for olive oil, but the ease with which it is detectable and the rigidity 
of State and national laws have reduced this fraud very greatly. Nevertheless, 
cases are occasionally found where admixtures of cottonseed oil with olive oil 
have been made. It will be useful, therefore, to give a simple and yet reliable 
test for the presence of cottonseed oil, which will detect even minute additions 
of this adulterant to olive oil. The test which is employed is known as the 
"Halphen test," from the name of its discoverer. The danger attending the 
use of the Halphen reagent has already been described. The test is applied 
as follows: 

Two or three tablespoonfuls of the Halphen reagent are mixed in a bot- 
tle or glass vessel with an equal volume. of the suspected sample of oil and 
heated, with precautions to avoid the burning of the reagent, in a vessel of 
boiling salt solution, prepared by dissolving one tablespoonful of salt in a pint 
of boiling water, the boihng continuing for from ten to fifteen minutes. At 
the end of this time, if even a small percentage of cottonseed oil is present, the 
mixture will be of a distinct reddish color, and if the sample consists largely 
or entirely of cottonseed oil, the color will be deep red. 

Glucose. — Glucose is very commonly used as a substitute for sugar in the 
making of jams, jellies, preserves, and confectioner's goods. The method of 
detecting glucose in jellies, jams, etc., is as follows: 



INVERT-SUGAR IN HONEY. 6oi 

Place a teaspoonful of the jelly in a glass or bottle with two or three table- 
spoonfuls of water; set the vessel in hot water in order to hasten the solution. 
In the case of a jam or marmalade, after adding the water the solution is 
filtered to separate the insoluble matter, and is then allowed to cool. An 
equal volume, or a little more, of strong alcohol is added. If the sample is 
a pure fruit product, the addition of alcohol causes no precipitation, except 
that a very slight amount of proteid bodies may be thrown down. If glucose 
has been employed in the manufacture of the article, however, a dense white pre- 
cipitate (dextrin) separates and after a time settles to the bottom of the liquid. 

Glucose in molasses, sirups, honies, etc., may be more certainly detected by 
the coloration produced by iodin. The starch from which glucose is made 
gives a blue coloration with iodin. As the starch disappears the blue color 
fades, and when glucose is reached the color changes to a red tint, due to the 
presence of erythrodextrin in the mixture. The suspected sample is dissolved 
in water and treated with a small quantity of iodin solution. If glucose be 
present the color produced is red or violet according to the nature of the glucose 
present and its quantity. A blank test with honey, sirup, or molasses known 
to contain no glucose should be made for comparative purposes. 

Often the substance to be examined has a red color of its own and in this 
case proceed as follows: 

Place a small quantity of the substance in a small glass, dilute with a little 
water in the case of a molasses, but with a sirup this is not necessary, and pre- 
cipitate with 95 percent alcohol, shaking all t\\e time or until no more precipita- 
tion occurs. Allow to settle, then decant the clear liquid, take up the residue 
with the smallest quantity of water that will dissolve it, and heat, if necessarv, 
to complete the solution. Cool, and reprecipitate with 95 percent alcohol. 
Decant, dissolve the gum again, using the smallest quantity of water prac- 
ticable and heating if necessary. Cool, add a drop of hvdrochloric acid to 
render the brown coloring substances soluble in alcohol, then precipitate all the 
gums with strong alcohol. Allow the gums to settle, then decant. Wash with 
strong alcohol, and dissolve in a small quantit}- of water; if still colored repeat 
the hydrochloric acid treatment or filter the liquid through animal charcoal. 
This should give a clear water-white solution, to which, in a test tube, add an 
iodin solution. To another test tube of the same size and containing the same 
quantity of water add the same amount of iodin solution. Note the two colors 
produced. If glucose is present the water solution of gums will be a dark red 
while the plain water solution varies in color from yellow to a light reddish- 
yellow, according to the strength of the iodin. 

Invert-sugar in Honey.— Since honey is composed almost entirely of 
invert-sugar, the practice of adulterating it with this substance has come into 
use, but happily not very generally. Invert-sugar in honey may be detected 
by a very simple test. The reagent used is anilin acetate prepared by shaking 



6o2 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. 

equal parts of anilin and water and adding enough strong acetic acid to clear 
the mixture. The reagent is prepared fresh for each day. To a small quan- 
tity of strong honey solution add a less quantity of the reagent by allowing it to 
flow down the sides of the vessel so as to form a layer on top of the honey- 
Turn the vessel gently so as to mix the two solutions on the plane of contact. 
The formation of a red color at the surfaces of contact of the two solutions in- 
dicates the presence of invert-sugar. If honey be strongly heated for some 
time it will give the same reaction, but, such treatment will spoil its flavor. 
This coloration is due to the formation of minute quantities of furfurol when 
sugar is heated. The test should be compared with a genuine honey. 

Starch in Jellies. — Starch is sometimes used in cheap jellies as a thickener. 
A teaspoonful of the jelly is dissolved in a teacup, adding enough water to 
half fill it, and the contents are heated to boiling. While boiling, a solution of 
potassium permanganate is added, drop by drop, stirring constantly with a 
teaspoon, until the solution is almost colorless. The mixture is allowed to cool, 
and to hasten the cooling the vessel may be placed in cold water. It is then 
tested with a drop of the tincture of iodin. If the jam or jelly contains any 
starch, a blue color will be produced. Starch may be a natural constit- 
uent of some fruits, as apples, and hence the blue color produced may not 
be a positive proof of the addition of starch. 

Starch in Spices and Condiments. — The test for added starch in condi- 
ments is rendered the more difficult because most of the condimental sub- 
stances, that is, the several peppers, etc., contain starch of their own. The 
only way to distinguish in this case is by means of the microscope, and this 
can only be used with success in the hands of a skilled observer. There are 
spices, however, which contain no starch, such as cloves, mustard, and cayenne 
pepper, and in these products added starch can be readily detected by means 
of the iodin test already described. To conduct the manipulation a half tea- 
spoonful of the spice is stirred into half a cupful of boiling water and the 
boiling continued for two or three minutes, by means of which any starch which 
may be present is reduced to a state which is more or less soluble. After 
cooling, artificially or otherwise, if the color is dark the mixture should be 
diluted with water, thus reducing the color so that the characteristic blue 
tint of the reaction may be seen. The test is made as already described, by 
dropping a small portion of the iodin mixture into the boiled and cooled spice 
and watching the effect. The appearance of a pronounced blue color is a 
positive indication that starch has been added. 



EXAMINATION OF CERTAIN FOODS FOR ADULTERATIONS. 

Coffee. — A number of simple tests for the presence of adulterants in ground 

coffee may be given. If the coffee is not ground, a careful inspection of the 



COFFEE. 603 

beans will disclose the number of imperfect, split, or defective beans, or the 
presence of grit, gravel, dirt, or foreign bodies of any kind. By picking out 
these imperfect and foreign bodies, and weighing them, the relative amount 
of adulterants present is determined, or it ma}- be estimated with a good deal 
of accuracy simply by inspection. This method will also detect any artificial 
beans, if they are present. The price of coffee has been so low, however, for a 
number of years that it has not been profitable to manufacture imitation coffee 
beans of any kind. When the coffee is ground, however, the presence of 
aduherants, such as chicory, is more difficult to ascertain. The difference 
between the genuine ground coffee and the adulterated article may, however, 
be sometimes detected by simple inspection without the aid of the microscope. 
This is particularly true if the product be coarsely ground or crushed, but the 
difficulty of this kind of inspection increases with the fineness of the grinding. 
Ground coffee has a uniform appearance, whereas if .beans, peas, cereals, 
chicory, etc., have been added, the heterogeneous character of the mixtiu-e is 
more or less evident. By the use of the magnif}'ing glass the adulteration is 
still more apparent. It is even possible, with a sharp-pointed instrument such 
as a penknife, to pick out the particles which are not coffee. Chicory particles 
especially are easily detected, as they are dark looking, gummy, and not 
granular in character. They stand out in strong contrast to the particles of 
coffee and also to the other adulterants which have been mentioned. Chicory 
particles have a bitter and somewhat astringent taste, which is easily distin- 
guished by those who are familiar with it.. The real coffee particles have a 
distinct appearance. They usually ha\-e a dull surface, whereas some of the 
coffee substitutes, such as peas and beans, often present a polished surface. 

Test in Water. — After the gross inspection has been made by the eye or with 
the aid of the magnifying glass, a portion of the ground coffee may be placed 
in a glass or other vessel partly filled with water, and the mixture well shaken. 
The vessel is then set aside for a moment and its appearance observed. Pure 
coffee contains a large quantity of oil, and for this reason the greater number 
of the particles will float in w ater. Nearly all of the coffee substitutes, however, 
are heavier than water, and will sink to the bottom, carrying with them, of 
course, some of the particles of the real coffee. In this way a very fair idea of 
the piu-ity of the coffee is obtained. It may be certain, in testing ground coffee 
in this way, that if there is a very large deposit the coffee is adulterated. 

Color Test for Chicory. — Chicory mixed with ground coffee can be detected 
by a water test, usuall}- with considerable ease. The suspected sample is 
dropped, a few particles at a time, into a glass of water, and, being shghtly 
heavier than water, they sink, leaving behind them a brownish streak. This 
test, however, must be made with some care, as it is apt to lead to errors in the 
hands of persons who are not well acquainted with the characteristic colorings 
of chicory. It is advisable to get some pure chicory and pure coffee and experi- 



6o4 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. 

ment with each separately, and then with the mixtures of known proportions 
of each, to train the eye to observe the various piienomena. When this is done, 
the test becomes very useful. 

Test for Cereals, etc. — Coffee is distinguished from the cereals and legu- 
minous seeds which are usually substituted for it by the fact that it contains no 
starch, while the cereals and legumes, such as peas and beans, contain very large 
quantities. Even when the coffee and its substitutes are roasted, there may 
be enough starch present to respond to the test, which is extremely simple. 
The method given above for the detection of starch in spices and condi- 
ments is used to detect cereals in coffee. 

If the sample contain much starch, the dilution before testing should be 
carried to a greater degree. Care must be taken to add only a drop of the 
tincture of iodin at first; but if no blue color is developed, more may be used. 

Canned Goods. — Canned goods in the United States are very rarely adul- 
terated, either with coloring-matter or with any added substances such as 
preservatives. The only examination, therefore, of canned goods that may be 
made with profit, is of the condition of the can, to see if it has been properly 
sealed, or to determine whether the contents of the can have acted on the 
tin. For this purpose the can should be cut open and the inner surface of 
the tin examined. If it appears to be corroded and is covered with figures of 
various kinds, the contents of the can may have dissolved quantities of the tin 
which may be deemed injurious, but this deduction is not always correct. 

More important yet is the examination of the can to see if it has been per- 
fectly sterilized as well as sealed. This is especially true of cans which con- 
tain lobster, fish, and similar products. There is no kind of food in which de- 
cay is more dangerous, as it is attended often with the development of 
ptomains, which are powerful poisons. If the can is found to bear the trace of 
only partial steriHzation, or of imperfect sealing, as determined by appear- 
ance, taste or smell, it should be at once rejected. Especial attention 
should be paid to the behavior of a can when a small hole is made in it 
preparatory to opening. If an escape of gas is noticed, the contents of 
the can should be rejected. Rusty, old, and soiled cans should be looked 
upon with suspicion. There is no simple way of determining the quan- 
tity of tin or lead in canned foods. The presence of these bodies may be 
avoided by using a can lacquered on the inside or one made of glass. In 
general, the canned goods on the market are in excellent condition. Any pos- 
sible danger may be avoided by the careful examination of cans and their 
contents before thev are offered for consumption. 

Eggs. — It is highly important that eggs be examined for the grosser forms 
of decomposition. By a cultivated taste, perfectly fresh eggs may be distin- 
guished from eggs which have been properly kept in cold storage for some 
time. But where marked changes have gone on in the egg substances, due 



FLAVORING EXTRACTS (VANILLA AND LEMON). 605 

to Storage, either with or without refrigeration, there are certain other char- 
acteristics developed which can be easily determined. The most important 
of these tests is what is known as "candling." This consists in holding 
the egg between the eye and a proper light and observing the illumina- 
tion within the shell. The room should always be darkened. If dark spots 
are found in the egg, it is certain that it is not perfectly fresh, since a fresh 
egg presents a homogeneous, translucent, and attractive appearance. More- 
over, there is found in the larger end of a fresh egg, between the shell and the 
lining membrane, a small air cell which is distinctly transparent. In an egg 
which is not perfectly fresh this space, unless the egg is stored with the large end 
up, becomes filled with egg substance and presents the same appearance as 
the rest of the egg. Eggs which have been stored a long time and not properly 
turned tend to show the yolk on the underside, often adhering to the shell 
itself, and this is always an indication that the egg has been stored and kept 
still at the same time. The best of all tests, however, is to open the egg and 
examine its general appearance, its mobility, and its odor and taste, and 
by these means determine whether or not it is fresh or stored. Eggs which 
have been stored some time show a tendency in the white and yolk to run 
together, and whenever this phenomenon is noticed, it may be certain that 
the egg, if the hen has been properly fed, is not a fresh one, although no 
perceptible odor of decay may be developed. 

The Salt Solution Test. — Perfectly fresh eggs will just sink in a lo percent 
salt solution at 70° F. This test is quickly applied and will distinguish the 
really fresh egg from one which is even a few days old. It is possible also to 
apply the sinking and floating test on a large scale. Salt water tanks of any 
size are easily constructed into which lumdreds of dozens of eggs may be 
placed at once, thus effecting a speedy separation of sinkers and floaters, and 
at a minimum expense. There are some instances where a fresh egg will not 
sink in these circumstances, but such cases are not numerous enough to be of 
any importance. It is claimed, however, that this treatment impairs the keep- 
ing quality of the eggs when placed in cold storage. 

Flavoring Extracts (Vanilla and Lemon).— Vanilla extract is one of the 
most common of the flavoring materials employed in the home. In the past few 
years it has also been one of the products most frequently aduherated, and 
many imitations or substitutes for vanilla extract have been sold under the 
name of the extract itself, as vanilla flavor, etc. The true product is made by 
extracting vanilla beans with alcohol, and the flavoring matter consists of an 
alcoholic solution of vanillin, which is the chief flavoring ingi-edient of the 
vanilla bean, together with other constituents of the bean soluble in alcohol 
which are classed principall}^ under the head of resins. These resins, although 
present in a very small amount, and having only a slight flavor in themselves, 
are yet able to affect very materially the flavor of the product. 



6o6 SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. 

Common Adulterants. — One of the most common adulterations of vanilla 
is an extract made from the tonka bean, which in some respects resembles that 
of the vanilla bean, but is much cheaper and is far inferior in flavoring proper- 
ties. It has a marked penetrating, almost pungent odor, in sharp contrast to 
the flavor of the vanilla extract. By having at hand a httle vanilla extract 
of known purity, and a genuine tonka extract, anyone can very readily dis- 
criminate between them by their odor and taste. 

A riiftcial Vanillin. — Another adulterant of vanilla extract is artificial vanil- 
lin, a synthetic product. Extracts made of this substance contain no resins, 
which is one of the means of determining whether or not the vanillin used is 
an artificial preparation. Extracts made from artificial vanilhn are de- 
cidedly inferior in all valuable qualities to the true vanilla extract and are 
generally colored so as to imitate the natural product. Caramel is the usual 
coloring-matter employed, and its presence can be detected by shaking and 
observing the color of the resulting foam after a moment's standing. The 
foam of pure extracts is colorless. If caramel is present, a color persists at 
the points of contact till the last bubble has disappeared. 

Examination of the Resin. — If pure vanilla extract slightly acidified with 
acetic acid be evaporated to about one-third its volume, the resins, which were 
before in solution, are separated and settle to the bottom of the vessel. On 
the other hand, artificial extracts remain clear under the same treatment. In 
the examination of vanilla extract the character of these resins is studied. For 
this purpose a dish containing about an ounce of the extract is placed over a 
teakettle or other vessel of boiling water until the liquid evaporates to about 
one-third or less of its volume. The alcohol having been by this time all 
driven off, the resins become insoluble and separate. Water is added to bring 
the liquid back approximately to its original volume. This separates the resins, 
which will be thrown out as a brown flocculent precipitate. A few drops of 
hydrochloric acid are added, the liquid is stirred, and the insoluble matter 
allowed to settle. It is then filtered, and the resin on the filter-paper is washed 
with water and afterward dissolved in a little alcohol. To one portion of this 
solution is added a small particle of ferric alum, and to another portion a few 
drops of hydrochloric acid. If the resin is that of the vanilla bean, neither 
ferric alum nor hydrochloric acid will produce more than a slight change in 
color. With resins from most other sources, however, one or both of these 
substances causes a distinct color change. 

Lemon Extract. — Lemon extract is a flavoring material made by dissolving 
oil of lemon in strong alcohol. If oil of lemon is poured into dilute alcohol, 
large quantities of its constituents are separated, but they are held in solution 
if the alcoholic strength of the extract does not fall below 80 percent. Alcohol 
is, therefore, one of the most valuable constituents of lemon extract, for without 
it the product would be precipitated and unusable. Owing to the fact that 



FLOUR. 607 

lemon extract is a 5 percent solution of oil of lemon in strong alcohol, the 
sample may be examined by simply diluting with water. A teaspoonful of the 
extract is placed in the bottom of a glass tumbler and twopr three teaspoon- 
fuls of water added. If the sample is real lemon extract, the lemon oil will be 
thrown out of solution by reason of its insolubility in the alcohol after its dilu- 
tion with water. The first result is a marked turbidity, and later the separation 
of the oil of lemon on the top of the aqueous fluid takes place. If the sample 
remains perfectly clear after the addition of water, no marked turbidity being 
produced, it is undoubtedly a very low-grade product, and contains little, if 
any, of the real oil of lemon. 

Flour. — Within the last decade a process for artificially bleaching flour 
has been quite widely introduced. A bleached flour is of a dead white color, 
and the loaf of bread baked therefrom is usually a dingy white, and not a 
faint amber as would be expected from a natural flour. The bleaching 
process results in the addition of small amounts of nitrogen peroxid and 
renders the oil present nearly colorless instead of yellow. On these two 
facts the following tests are based. 

Method I {for Nitrites), Solutions. — (i) Dissolve 0.5 gram (7.7 grains) of 
sulphanilic acid in 150 c.c. (5 oz.) of dilute acetic acid (about 20 percent). 
Keep well stoppered. (2) Dissolve 0.2 gram (3.1 grains) of alpha-naphthyl- 
amin hydrochlorid in 20 c.c. (0.7 oz.) of strong acetic acid (glacial), and add 
130 c.c. (4.4 oz.) of dilute acetic acid (20 percent). Keep well stoppered. 
Mix I and 2 for use. These reagents shoulfl be prepared by a pharmacist. 
The mixed reagent keeps for several weeks. 

Preliminary test: The water to be used should first be tested for nitrites 
by adding to a 4-ounce bottle of M'ater about one teaspoonful of the mi.xed re- 
agent. If after shaking and allowing to stand for about twenty minutes the 
solution remains colorless or is a very faint pink color, the water is suitable 
for making the following test. Distilled water is best for this purpose if ob- 
tainable. 

Determination: Place a heaping teaspoonful of the flour to be exam- 
ined in a wide-mouth, glass-stoppered, 4-ounce bottle. Nearly fill with 
water and add about a teaspoonful of the solution. Stopper the bottle and 
shake vigorously for a few minutes; then allow to settle for from fifteen to 
twenty minutes. 

Under these conditions bleached flour will impart to the liquid a color 
ranging from a light pink to a deep red, depending on the degree of bleaching; 
unbleached flour should give no more color than the water alone. If a flour 
that is known to be unbleached can be obtained, it is well to make the test on 
this at the same time, for purposes of comparison. 

Method II {for Color of Oil). — Place 2 heaping teaspoonfuls (20 grams) of 
the flour in a wide-mouth, glass-stoppered, 4-ounce bottle, nearly fill the bottle 



6o8 SIAirLK METHODS FOR DETECTING FOOD ADULTERATIONS. 

with gasoline, shake, and allow to settle. If the flour is unbleached, the gaso- 
line will become distinctl;,' yellow; if bleached, it will remain nearly colorless. 
It is well to conduct this test also with a known unbleached tlour for compari- 
son. This ex})eriment must not be made in a room where there is any kind 
of lire, tlame or spark. 

Vinegar. — \'inegar has been subjected to many kinds of substitution, imi- 
tation, and adulteration. The term vinegar in this country is, by common 
consent, and also by the statutes of several of the States and by the regulations 
of the United States Department of Agriculture, applied to cider vinegar. 
In France the principal \'inegar employed is made from wine, while in England 
it is usually made from malt. The tests applied in this country, therefore, are 
to determine whether the product is made from cider or not. Vinegar made 
from wine has a distinct wine odor; on the other hand, cider vinegar has 
the peculiar odor of the apple. If the vinegar is evaporated slowly almost to 
dryness, the characteristic odor of the malt, or wine, or cider vinegar can be 
very readily detected in the warm residue. The residue from cider vinegar 
will smell something like baked apj)les, and that from wine hke grapes. If the 
vinegar, however, is made from what is known as distilled vinegar, the color 
of the residue will be very dark, almost black, and the odor will be entirely 
distinct from that of the other vinegars mentioned. The test may be continued 
further by heating the dish until the residue commences to burn. In this test 
the residue from cider vinegar will have the odor of scorched apples, while 
distilled vinegar, which has been colored with caramel, will have the odor of 
burnt sugar. Unfortunately, however, the low-grade vinegars often have a 
small amount of concentrated apple juice added to them, and this, of course, 
obscures these phvsical tests to a certain extent. They will, however, enable 
a person unskilled in chemistry to distinguish perfectly between cider vinegar, 
malt vinegar, wine vinegar, and distilled vinegar made by the acetification of 
dilute alcohol. 

How to Distinguish Genuine Butter from Renovated. — The boiling 
test. — An important means employed in distinguishing between genuine and 
renovated butter is the boiling test. This test distinguishes between genuine 
butter on the one hand and oleomargarine and renovated butter on the other; 
and, fortunately, it is so simple of execution that it can be employed in any 
kitchen almost as well as in the laboratory, and requires no special skill on the 
part of the operator. It consists merely in boiling briskly a small portion of the 
sample and observing its behavior the while. 

The test may be conducted as follows: Using as the source of heat an 
ordinary kerosene lamp, turned low and with chimney off, melt the sample to 
be tested (a piece the size of a small chestnut) in an ordinary tablespoon, has- 
tening the process by stirring with a splinter of wood (for example, a match). 
Then, increasing the heat, bring to as brisk a boil as possible, and after the 



TEST FOR OLEOMARGARINE. 609 

boiling has begun, stir the contents of the spoon thoroughly, not neglecting the 
outer edges, two or three times at intervals during the boiling — always shortly 
before the boiling ceases. In the laboratory a test tube, a spoon, or sometimes 
a small tin dish, is used in making this test. 

A gas flame, if available, can be used perhaps more conveniently than a 
kerosene lamp. 

Oleomargarine and renovated butter boil noisily, sputtering (more or less) 
like a mixture of grease and water when boiled, and produce no foam, or but 
very little. Renovated butter produces usually a very small amount. 

Genuine butter boils usually with less noise, and produces an abundance 0} 
foam. 

The difference in regard to foam is very marked, as a rule. Rarely, a butter 
is found which yields an uncertain result; such a butter should receive the 
attention of the grocer. 

To Distinguish Oleomargarine from Renovated and Genuine Butters. 
— Utensils required. — The utensils required in the test to distinguish oleo- 
margarine from renovated and genuine butters are as follows: 

(i) A one-half pint tin "measuring cup," common in kitchen use, marked 
at the half and quarters; or a plain one-half pint tin measure, ordinary narrow 
form; or an ordinary small tin cup, 2| inches in diameter and 2 inches in 
height, holding about one gill and a half. 

(2) A common kitchen pan, about 9^ inches in diameter at the base. 

(3) A small rod of wood, of the thickness of a match and of convenient 
length for stirring. 

(4) A clock or watch. 

The process. — The process for distinguishing oleomargarine from reno- 
vated and genuine butters is as follows: 

Use sweet skimmed milk, obtained by setting fresh milk in a cool place for 
twelve to twenty-four hours and removing cream as fully as possible. Half 
fill with this milk the half-pint cup or measure, or two-thirds fill the smaller 
cup mentioned, measuring accurately the gill of milk when* possible; heat 
nearly to boiling, add a sUghtly rounded teaspoonful of the butter or butter 
substitute, stir with the wooden rod, and continue heating until the milk "boils 
up," remove at once from the heat and place in the pan (arranged while milk 
and fat are heating) containing pieces of ice with a very little ice water, the ice 
to be mostly in pieces of the size of one to two hen's eggs (not smaller, as small 
fragments melt too rapidly) and sufficient in quantity to cover two-thirds of the 
bottom of the pan; the water to be in quantity sufficient, when the cup is first 
placed in the pan, to reach on the outside of the cup to only one-fourth the 
height of the milk within; any water in excess of that amount must be removed. 
This refers to the condition at the beginning of the cooling; later, as the ice 
melts, the water will rise to a higher level. Stir the contents of the cup rather 
40 



6lO SIMPLE METHODS FOR DETECTIN'G FOOD ADULTERATIONS. 

rapidly, with a rotary and a cross-wise motion in turn, continuously throughout 
the test, except during the moment of time required for each stirring of the ice 
and water in the pan, which must be done thoroughly once every minute by the 
clock. This is done by moving the cup about, in a circle, following the edge of 
the pan. Proceed in this manner for ten minutes, unless before that time the 
fat has gathered or has allowed itself to be easily gathered, in a lump or a soft 
mass, soon hardening. If it so gathers, the sample is oleomargarine; if not^ 
it is either genuine or renovated butter. 

The boiling test enables one to distinguish in the great majority of cases be- 
tween genuine butter on the one hand and oleomargarine and renovated butter 
on the other; the Waterhouse test, household adaptation as just given, enables 
one to distinguish between the two last named; and so, by the use of the twa 
tests, one can determine in nearly every instance which of the three he has ia 
hand. There are many persons who are able to recognize oleomargarine^ 
almost without fail, by taste and smell alone. To those not possessed of this 
power the boiling test, which is performed with almost no trouble, will serve 
every needful purpose. 

In every instance it is advisable to try the tests on samples of known origin 
in order to be more certain of the results when samples of unknown origin are 
used. 

Watered Milk. — Nearly all natural water contains a trace of nitric acid 
as nitrates, and this fact has led to the following test: 

Nitrates in milk may be detected as follows: The serum of the milk is prepared 
by adding 2 parts of 25 percent acetic acid to 100 parts of milk and heating for 
twenty minutes at a temperature of 160°. If desired, alum may be employed 
in place of acetic acid. When the milk is evidently coagulated, the beaker is 
placed in ice water until thoroughly cooled and the clear serum is then separated 
from the curd by filtering. A few drops of the serum are placed in a white 
porcelain dish or saucer and i or 2 drops of strong sulfuric acid (at least 80 
percent) containing o.i gram diphenylamin per 100 c.c. is added. The pres- 
ence of nitrates is indicated by the formation within a minute or two of a deep 
blue color. If the sulfuric acid is placed in the milk serum without mixing, it 
will settle through the serum to the bottom and a blue ring will be apparent at 
the edge of the rim of sulfuric acid. The test is an exceedingly delicate one 
and blank tests must be .made with the reagents employed in order to be sure 
a trace of nitrate is not obtained with them. Milk known to be free from ni- 
trates should also be employed as a means of testing the reagents. It is our 
experience that milk giving this diphenylamin reaction for nitrates has 
always been watered. At the same time, the test has been objected to on the 
ground that dung dropping from the cow into the bucket during the opera- 
tion of milking was likely to introduce nitrates into the milk. 

Gelatin in Ice Cream. — The method for the detection of gelatin in ice 



GELATIN IN ICE CREAM. 6ll 

cream is as follows: Fifty parts of the ice cream are treated with 25 parts of 
water and brought to the boiling point to dissolve an\' thickener that may be 
present and not in complete solution. Ten parts of this preparation are 
treated as follows: Prepare an acid solution of mercuric nitrate by dissolving 
mercury in twice its weight of nitric acid of 1.42 specific gravity, and diluting 
this solution to 25 times its bulk with water. To 10 parts of the milk or cream 
to be examined, add an equal volume of the acid mercuric nitrate solution, 
shake the mixture, add 20 parts of water, shake again, allow to stand five 
minutes, and filter. If much gelatin is present the filtrate will be opalescent 
and can not be obtained quite clear. To a portion of the filtrate contained in a 
test tube, add an equal volume of a saturated aqueous solution of picric acid. 
A yellow precipitate will be produced in presence of any considerable amount of 
gelatin, while smaller amounts will be indicated by a cloudiness. In the ab- 
sence of gelatin the filtrate obtained will remain perfectly clear. 



APPENDIX. 



UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY— Circular No. 19. 



STANDARDS OF PURITY FOR FOOD PRODUCTS. 

Superseding Circulars Nos. 13 and 17. 
Supplemental Proclamation. 



Referring to Circular No. 13 of this Office, dated December 20, 1904, and to Circular 
No. 17 of this Office, dated March 8, 1906, the following food standards are hereby es- 
tablished as superseding and supplemental to those pr6claimed on the dates above named. 

, James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 
Washington, D. C, June 26, 1906. 

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 

The Honorable the Secretary of Agriculture: 

Sir: The undersigned, representing the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists 
of the United States and the Interstate Food Commission, and commissioned by you, 
under authority given by the act of Congress approved March 3, 1903, to collaborate with 
you "to establish standards of purity for food products and to determine what are regarded 
as adulterations therein," respectfully report that they have carefully reviewed, in the light 
of recent investigations and correspondence, the standards earlier recommended by them 
and have prepared a set of amended schedules, in which certain changes have been intro- 
duced for the purpose of securing increased accuracy of expression and a more perfect cor- 
respondence of the chemical limits to the normal materials designated, and from which 
standards previously proclaimed for several manufactured articles have heen omitted 
because of the unsatisfactory condition of trade nomenclature as applied thereto; and also 
additional schedules of standards for ice creams, vegetables and vegetable products, tea, 
and coffee. They respectfully recommend that the standards herewith submitted be 
approved and proclaimed as the established standards, superseding and supplementing 
those established on December 20, 1904, and March 8, 1906. 

The principles that have guided us in the formulation of these standards are appended 
hereto. 

613 



6i4 



STANDARDS OF PURITY. 



The several schedules of additional standards recommended have been submitted, in a 
tentative form, to the manufacturing firms and the trade immediately interested, and also 
to the State food-control officials for criticism. 

Respectfully, William Frear, 

Edward H. Jenkins, 
m. a. scovell, 
H. A. Weber, 
H. W. Wiley, 
Committee on Food Standards, Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. 

Richard Fischer, 
Re presenting the Interstate' Food Commission. 
Washington, D. C, June 26, 1906. 

PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THE STANDARDS ARE BASED. 

The general considerations which have guided the committee in preparing the standards 
for food products are the following : 

1. The standards are expressed in the form of definitions, with or without accompany- 
ing specifications of limit in composition. 

2. The main classes of food articles are defined before the subordinate classes are con- 
sidered. 

3. The definitions are so framed as to exclude from the articles defined substances not 
included in the definitions. 

4. The definitions include, where possible, those qualities which make the articles de- 
scribed wholesome for human food. 

5. A term defined in any of the several schedules has the same meaning wherever else it" 
is used in this report. 

6. The names of food products herein defined usually agree with existing American 
trade or manufacturing usage; but where such usage is not clearly established or where 
trade names confuse two or more articles for which specific designations are desirable, 
preference is given to one of the several trade names applied. 

7. Standards are based upon data representing materials produced under American 
conditions and manufactured by American processes or representing such varieties of 
foreign articles as are chiefly imported for American use. 

8. The standards fixed are such that a departure of the articles to which they apply, 
above the maximum or below the minimum limit prescribed, is evidence that such articles 
are of inferior or abnormal quality. 

9. The limits fixed as standard are not necessarily the extremes authentically recorded 
for the article in question, because such extremes are commonly due to abnormal condi- 
tions of production and are usually accompanied by marks of inferiority or abnormality 
readily perceived by the producer or manufacturer. 

FOOD STANDARDS. 

I. ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 

A. Meats and the Principal Meat Products. 

a. meats. 

I. Meat, flesh, is any clean, sound, dressed, and properly prepared edible part of ani 

mals in good health at the time of slaughter, and if it bears a name descriptive of its kind. 



ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 



615 



composition, or origin, it corresponds thereto. The term "animals," as herein used, in- 
cludes not only mammals, but fish, fowl, crustaceans, moUusks, and all other animals used 
as food. 

2. Fresh meat is meat from animals recently slaughtered and properly cooled until 
delivered to the consumer. 

3. Cold storage meat is meat from animals recently slaughtered and preserved by re- 
frigeration until delivered to the consumer.* 

4. Salted, pickled, and smoked meats are unmixed meats preserved by salt, sugar, vine- 
gar, spices, or smoke, singly or in combination, whether in bulk or in suitable containers. f 

b. MANUFACTURED MEATS. 

I. Manufactured meats are meats not included in paragraphs 2, 3, and 4, whether 
simple or mixed, whole or comminuted, in bulk or in suitable containers, f with or without 
the addition of salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, smoke, oils, or rendered fat. If they bear 
names descriptive of kind, composition, or origin, they correspond thereto, and when bear- 
ing such descriptive names, if force or flavoring meats are used, the kind and quantity 
thereof are made known. 

C. MEAT EXTR.\CTS, ME.\T PEPTONES, ETC. 

(Schedule in preparation.) 

d. LARD. 

1. Lard is the rendered fresh fat from hogs in good health at the time of slaughter, is 
clean, free from rancidity, and contains, necessarily incorporated in the process of render- 
ing, not more than one (i) percent of substances, other than fatty acids and fat. 

2. Leaf lard is lard rendered at moderately high temperatures from the internal fat of 
the abdomen of the hog, excluding that adherent to t^e intestines, and has an iodin number 
not greater than sixty (60). 

3. Neutral lard is lard rendered at low temperatures. 

B. Milk and Its Troducts. 

a. MILKS. 

1. Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking of one 
or more healthy cows, properly fed and kept, excluding that obtained within fifteen days 
before and ten days after calving, and contains not less than eight and one-half (8.5) per- 
cent of solids not fat, and not less than three and one-quarter (3.25) percent of milk fat. 

2. Blended milk is milk modified in its composition so as to have a definite and stated 
percentage of one or more of its constituents. 

* The establishment of proper periods of time for cold storage is reserved for future consideration 
when the investigations on this subject, authorized by Congress, are completed. 

t Suitable containers for keeping moist food products such as sirups, honey, condensed milk, 
soups, meat extracts, meats, manufactured meats, and undried fruits and vegetables, and wrappers in 
contact with food products, contain on their surfaces, in contact with the food product, no lead, anti- 
mony, arsenic, zinc, or copper, or any compounds thereof or any other poisonous or injurious substance. 
If the containers are made of tin plate they are outside-soldered and the plate in no place contains 
less than one hundred and thirteen (113) milligrams of tin on a piece five (5) centimeters square or one 
and eight-tenths (1.8) grains on a piece two (2) inches square. 

The inner coating of the containers is free from pin-holes, blisters, and cracks. 

If the tin plate is lacquered, the lacquer completely covers the tinned surface within the container 
and yields to the contents of the container no lead, antimony, arsenic, zinc, or copper or any com- 
pounds thereof, or any other poisonous or injurious substance. 



6i6 STANDARDS OF PURITY. 

3. Skim milk is milk from which a part or all of the cream has been removed and con- 
tains not less than nine and one-quarter (9.25) percent of milk solids. 

4. Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below boiling but sufficiently to kill 
most of the active organisms present and immediately cooled to 50° Fahr. or lower. 

5. Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated at the temperature of boiling water or 
higher for a length of time sufficient to kill all organisms present. 

6. Condensed milk, evaporated milk, is milk from which a considerable portion of water 
has been evaporated, and contains not less than twenty-eight (28) percent of milk solids 
of which not less than twenty-seven and five-tenths (27.5) percent is milk fat. 

7. Sweetened condensed milk is milk from which a considerable portion of water has been 
evaporated and to which sugar (sucrose) has been added, and contains not less than twenty- 
eight (28) percent of milk solids, of which not less than twenty-seven and five-tenths 
(27.5) percent is milk fat. 

8. Condensed skim milk is skim milk from which a considerable portion of water has 
been evaporated. 

9. Buttermilk is the product that remains when butter is removed from milk or cream 
in the process of churning. 

10. Goat's milk, ewe's milk, et cetera, are the fresh, clean, lacteal secretions, free from 
colostrum, obtained by the complete milking of healthy animals other than cows, properly 
fed and kept, and conform in name to the species of animal from which they are obtained. 

b. CREAM. 

1. Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which rises to the surface of milk on 
standing, or is separated from it by centrifugal force, is fresh and clean and contains not 
less than eighteen (18) percent of milk fat. 

2. Evaporated cream, clotted cream, is cream from which a considerable portion of water 
has been evaporated. 

C. MILK FAT OR BUTTER FAT. 

I. Milk fat, butter fat, is the fat of milk, and has a Reichert-Meissl number not less than 
twenty-four (24) and a specific gravity not less than 0.905 I ■ — 5-^ 1. 

d. BUTTER. 

1. Butter is the clean, non-rancid product made by gathering in any manner the fat of 
fresh or ripened milk or cream into a mass, which also contains a small portion of the 
other milk constituents, with or without salt, and contains not less than eighty-two and 
five-tenths (82.5) percent of milk fat. By acts of Congress approved August 2, 1886, 
and May 9, 1902, butter may also contain added coloring matter. 

2. Renovated butter, process butter, is the product made by melting butter and rework- 
ing, without the addition or use of chemicals or any substances except milk, cream, or salt, 
and contains not more than sixteen (16) percent of water and at least eighty-two and five- 
tenths (82.5) percent of milk fat. 

e. CHEESE. 

1. Cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from milk or cream by coagu- 
lating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening 
ferments and seasoning, and contains, in the water-free substance, not less than fifty (50) 
percent of milk fat. By act of Congress, approved June 6, 1896, cheese may also contain 
added coloring matter. 

2. Skim milk cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product, made from skim milk 



VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 5jy 

by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, with or without the addition 
of ripening ferments and seasoning. 

3. Goat's milk cheese, ewe's milk cheese, et cetera, are the sound, ripened products made 
from the milks of the animals specified, by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or 
lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning. 

f. ICE CREAMS. 

1. Ice cream is a frozen product made from cream and sugar, with or without a natural 
flavoring, and contains not less than fourteen (14) percent of milk fat. 

2. Fruit ice cream, is a frozen product made from cream, sugar, and sound, clean, mature 
fruits, and contains not less than twelve (12) percent of milk fat. 

3. Nut ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar, and sound, non-rancid 
nuts, and contains not less than twelve (12) percent of milk fat. 

g. MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS. 

1. Whey is the product remaining after the removal of fat and casein from milk in the 
process of cheese-making. 

2. Kumiss is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation of mare's or cow's milk. 

II. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 
A. Grain Products. 

a. GRAINS AND MEALS. 

1. Grain is the fully matured, clean, sound, air-dry seed of wheat, maize, rice, oats, 
rye, buckwheat, barley, sorghum, millet, or spelt. 

2. Meal is the clean, sound product made by grinding grain. 

3. Flour is the fine, clean, sound product made by bolting wheat meal and contains 
not more than thirteen and one-half (13.5) percent of moisture, not less than one and 
twenty-five hundredths (1.25) percent of nitrogen, not more than one (i) percent of ash, 
and not more than fifty hundredths (0.50) percent of fiber. 

4. Graham flour is unbolted wheat meal. 

5. Gluten flour is the clean, sound product made from flour by the removal of starch 
and contains not less than five and six-tenths (5.6) percent of nitrogen and not more than 
ten (10) percent of moisture. , 

6. Maize meal, corn meal, Indian corn meal, is meal made from sound maize grain and 
contains not more than fourteen (14) percent of moisture, not less than one and twelve- 
hundredths (1.12) percent of nitrogen, and not more than one and Six-tenths (1.6) per- 
cent of ash. 

7. Rice is the hulled, or hulled and polished grain of Oryza sativa. 

8. Oatmeal is meal made from hulled oats and contains not more than twelve (12) per- 
cent of moisture, not more than one and five-tenths (1.5) percent of crude fiber, not less 
than two and twenty-four hundredths (2.24) percent of nitrogen, and not more than two 
and two-tenths (2.2) percent of ash. 

9. Rye flour is the fine, clean, sound product made by bolting rye meal and contains 
not more than thirteen and one-half (13.5) percent of moisture, not less than one and 
thirty-six hundredths (1.36) percent of nitrogen, and not more than one and twenty-five 
hundredths (1.25) percent of ash. 

10. Buckwheat flour is bolted buckwheat meal and contains not more than twelve (12) 
percent of moisture, not less than one and twenty-eight hundredths (1.28) percent of 
nitrogen, and not more than one and seventy-five hundredths (1.75) percent of ash. 



6l8 STANDARDS OF PURITY. 

B. Fruit and Vegetables. 

a. FRUIT AND FRUIT PRODUCTS. 

(P^xcept fruit juices, fresh, sweet, and fermented, and vinegars.) 

1. Fruits are the clean, sound, edible, fleshy fructifications of plants, distinguished by 
their sweet, acid, and ethereal flavors. 

2. Dried fruit* is the clean, sound product made by drying mature, properly prepared, 
fresh fruit in such a v^^ay as to take up no harmful substance, and conforms in name to the 
fruit used in its preparation ; sun-dried fruit is dried fruit made by drying without the use 
of artificial means; evaporated fruit is dried fruit made by drying with the use of arti- 
ficial means. 

3. Evaporated apples are evaporated fruit made from peeled and cored apples, and 
contain not more than twenty-seven (27) percent of moisture determined by the usual 
commercial method of drying for four (4) hours at the temperature of boiling water. 

(Standards for other dried fruits are in preparation.) 

4. Canned fruit is the sound product made by sterilizing clean, sound, properly matured 
and prepared fresh fruit, by heating, with or without sugar (sucrose) and spices, and keep- 
ing in suitable, clean, hermetically sealed containers and conforms in name to the fruit 
used in its preparation. 

5. Preserve^ is the sound product made from clean, sound, properly matured and pre- 
pared fresh fruit and sugar (sucrose) sirup, with or without spices or vinegar, and con- 
forms in name to that of the fruit used, and in its preparation not less than forty-five (45) 
pounds of fruit are used to each fifty-five (55) pounds of sugar. 

6. Honey preserve f is preserve in which honey is used in place of sugar (sucrose) sirup. 

7. Glucose preserve'] is preserve in which a glucose product is used in place of sugar 
(sucrose) sirup. 

8. Jam, marmalade,'] is the sound product made from clean, sound, properly matured 
and prepared fresh fruit and sugar (sucrose), with or without spices or vinegar, by boiling 
to a pulpy or semisolid consistence, and conforms in name to the fruit used, and in its 
preparation not less than forty-five (45) pounds of fruit are used to each fifty-five (55) 
pounds of sugar. 

9. Glucose jam, glucose inarmalade,] is jam in which a glucose product is used in place of 
sugar (sucrose). 

ID. Fruit butter] is the sound product made from fruit juice and clean, sound, properly 
matured and prepared fruit, evaporated to a semisolid mass of homogeneous consistence, 
with or without the addition of sugar and spices or vinegar, and conforms in name to the 
fruit used in its preparation. 

11. Glucose fruit butter'] is fruit liutter in which a glucose product is used in place of 
sugar (sucrose). 

12. Jelly] is the sound, semisolid, gelatinous product made by boiling clean, sound, 
properly matured and prepared fregh fruit with water, concentrating the expressed and 
strained juice, to which sugar (sucrose) is added, and conforms in name to the fruit used 
in its preparation. 

13. Glucose jelly] is jelly in which a glucose product is used in place of sugar (sucrose). 

* The subject of sulfurous acid in dried fruits is reserved for consideration in connection with the 
schedule " Preservatives and Coloring Matters." 

t Products made with mixtures of sugar, glucose, and honey, or any two thereof, are reserved for 
future consideration. 



SUGARS. 



619 



b. VEGETABLES AND VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 

1. Vegetables are the succulent, clean, sound, edible parts of herbaceous plants used 
for culinary purposes. 

2. Dried vegetables are the clean, sound products made by drying properly matured 
and prepared vegetables in such a way as to take, up no harmful substance, and conform 
in name to the vegetables used in their preparation; sun-dried vegetables are dried vege- 
tables made by drying without the use of artificial means; evaporated vegetables are dried 
vegetables made by drying with the use of artificial means. 

3. Canned vegetables are sound, properly matured and prepared fresh vegetables, with 
or without salt, sterilized by heat, with or without previous cooking in vessels from which 
they take up no metallic substance, kept in suitable, clean, hermetically sealed containers, 
are sound and conform in name to the vegetables used in their preparation. 

4. Pickles are clean, sound, immature cucumbers, properly prepared, without taking 
up any metallic compound other than salt, and preserved in any kind of vinegar, with or 
without spices; pickled onions, pickled beets, pickled beans, and other pickled vegetables 
are vegetables prepared as described above, and conform in name to the vegetables used. 

5. Salt pickles are clean, sound, immature cucumbers, preserved in a solution of com- 
mon salt, with or without spices. 

6. Sweet pickles are pickled cucumbers or other vegetables in the preparation of which 
sugar (sucrose) is used. 

7. Sauerkraut is clean, sound, properly prepared cabbage, mixed with salt, and sub- 
jected to fermentation. 

8. Catchup {ketchup, catsup) is the clean, sound product made from the properly pre- 
pared pulp of clean, sound, fresh, ripe tomatoes, with spices and with or without sugar and 
vinegar; mushroom catchup, walnut catchup, et cetera, are catchups made as above de- 
scribed and conform in name to the substances used in their preparation. 

C. Sugars and Related Substances. 
a. sugar and sugar products. 

sugars. 

1. Sugar is the product chemically known as sucrose (saccharose) chiefly obtained 
from sugar cane, sugar beets, sorghum, maple, and palm. 

2. Grafiulated, loaf, cut, milled, and powdered sugars are different forms of sugar and 
contain at least ninety-nine and five-tenths (99.5) percent of sucrose. 

3. Maple sugar is the solid product resulting from the evaporation of maple sap, and 
contains, in the water-free substance, not less than sixty-five one-hundredths (0.65) per- 
cent of maple sugar ash. 

4. Massecuite, melada, mush sugar, and concrete are products made by evaporating 
the purified juice of a sugar-producing plant, or a solution of sugar, to a solid or semisolid 
consistence, and in which the sugar chiefly exists in a crystalline state. 

MOLASSES AND REFINER'S SIRUP. 

1. Molasses is the product left after separating the sugar from massecuite, melada, 
mush sugar, or concrete, and contains not more than twentv-five (25) percent of water 
and not more than five (5) percent of ash. 

2. Refiners' sirup, treacle, is the residual liquid product obtained in the process of re- 
fining raw sugars and contains not more than twenty-five (25) percent of water and not 
more than eight (8) percent of ash. 



620 STANDARDS OF PURITY, 

SIRUPS. 

1. Sirup is the sound product made by purifying and evaporating the juice of a sugar- 
producing plant without removing any of the sugar. 

2. Sugar-cane sirup is sirup made by the evaporation of the juice of the sugar cane or 
by the solution of sugar-cane concrete, and contains not more than thirty (30) percent 
of water and not more than two and five-tenths (2.5) percent of ash. 

3. Sorghum sirup is sirup made by the evaporation of sorghum juice or by the solution 
of sorghum concrete, and contains not more than thirty (30) percent of water and not 
more than two and five-tenths (2.5) percent of ash. 

4. Maple sirup is sirup made by the evaporation of maple sap or by the solution of 
maple concrete, and contains not more than thirty-two (32) percent of water and not less 
than forty-five hundredths (0.45) percent of maple sirup ash. 

5. Sugar sirup is the product made by dissolving sugar to the consistence of a sirup 
and contains not more than thirty-five (35) percent of water. 

b. GLUCOSE PRODUCTS. 

1. Starch sugar is the solid product made by hydrolyzing starch or a starch-containing 
substance until the greater part of the starch is converted into dextrose. Starch sugar 
appears in commerce in two forms, anhydrous starch sugar and hydrous starch sugar. 
The former, crystallized without water of crystallization, contains not less than ninety- 
five (95) percent of dextrose and not more than eight-tenths (0.8) percent of ash. The 
latter, crystallized with water of crystallization, is of two varieties — 70 sugar, also known 
as brewers' sugar, contains not less than seventy (70) percent of dextrose and not more 
than eight-tenths (0.8) percent of ash; 80 sugar, climax or acme sugar, contains not less 
than eighty (80) percent of dextrose and not more than one and one-half (1.5) percent 
of ash. 

The ash of all these products consists almost entirely of chlorids and sulfates. 

2. Glucose, mixing glucose, conjectiorier's glucose, is a thick, sirupy, colorless product 
made by incompletely hydrolyzing starch, or a starch-containing substance, and decolorizing 
and evaporating the product. It varies in density from forty-one (41) to forty-five (45) 
degrees Baume at a temperature of 100° Fahr. (37.7° C), and conforms in density, within 
these limits, to the degree Baume it is claimed to show, and for a density of forty-one (41) 
degrees Baume contains not more than twenty-one (21) percent and for a density of forty- 
five (45) degrees not more than fourteen (14) percent of water. It contains on a basis 
of forty-one (41) degrees Baume not more than one (i) percent of ash, consisting chiefly 
of chlorids and sulfates. 

C. CANDY. 

I. Candy is a product made from a saccharine substance or substances with or with- 
out the addition of harmless coloring, flavoring, or filling materials and contains no terra 
alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow, or other mineral substances, or poisonous colors or 
flavors, or other ingredients deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous, malt, or 
spiritous liquor or compound, or narcotic drug. 

d. HONEY. 

1. Honey is the nectar and saccharine exudations of plants gathered, modified, and 
stored in the comb by honey bees {Apis mellifica and A. dorsata); is lasvo-rotatory, con- 
tains not more than twenty-five (25) percent of water, not more than twenty-five hun- 
dredths (0.25) percent of ash, and not more than eight (8) percent of sucrose. 

2. Comb honey is honey contained in the cells of the comb. 



CONDIMENTS. 521 

3. Extracted honey is honey which has been separated from the uncrushed comb by 
centrifugal force or gravity. 

4. Strained honey is honey removed from the crushed comb by straining or other 
means. 

D. Condiments (except Vinegar and Salt). 

a. SPICES. 

1. Spices are aromatic vegetable substances used for the seasoning of food and from 
which no portion of any volatile oil or other flavoring principle has been removed and which 
are clean, sound, and true to name. 

2. Allspice, pimento, is the dried fruit of the Pimenta pimenta (L.) Karst., and contains 
not less than eight (8) percent of quercitannic acid*; not more than six (6) percent of 
total ash, not more than five-tenths (0.5) percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, 
and not more than twenty-five (25) percent of crude fiber. 

3. Anise is the fruit of the Pimpinella anisum L. 

4. Bay leaf is the dried leaf of Laiirns nobilis L. 

5. Cfi'/'fr^ are the flower buds of Ca^/'ar/i' 5/'/«o5a L. 

6. Caraway is the fruit of Canon carvi L. 

cayenne and red peppers. 

7. Red pepper is the red, dried, ripe fruit of any species of Capsicum. 

8. Cayenne pepper, cayenne, is the dried ripe fruit of Capsicum jrutescens L., Capsi- 
cum haccattum L., or some other small-fruited species of Capsicum, and contains not less 
than fifteen (15) percent of non-volatile ether extract; not more than six and five-tenths 
(6.5) percent of total ash; not more than five -tenths (0.5) percent of ash insoluble in 
hydrochloric acid; not more than one and five-tenth^ (1.5) percent of starch, and not 
more than twenty-eight (28) percent of crude fiber. 

9. Paprika is the dried ripe fruit of Capsicum annum L., or some other large-fruited 
species of Capsicum, excluding seeds and stems. 

ID. Celery seed is the dried fruit of Apium graveolens L. 

11. Cinnamon is the dried bark of any species of the genus Cinnamomum from which the 
outer layers may or may not have been removed. 

12. True cinnamon is the dried inner bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyne. 

13. Cassia is the dried bark of various species of Cinnamomum, other than Cinna' 
momum zeylanicum, from which the outer layers may or may not have been removed. 

14. Cassia buds are the dried immature fruit of species of Cinnamomum. 

15. Ground cinnamon, ground cassia, is a powder consisting of cinnamon, cassia, or 
cassia buds, or a mixture of these spices and contains not more than six (6) percent of total 
ash and not more than two (2) percent of sand. 

16. Cloves are the dried flower buds of Caryophyllus aromaticus L., which contain not 
more than five (5) percent of clove stems; not less than ten (10) percent of volatile 
ether extract; not less than twelve (12) percent of quercitannic acid;* not more than 
eight (8) percent of total ash; not more than five-tenths (0.5) percent of ash insoluble in 
hydrochloric acid, and not more than ten (10) percent of crude fiber. 

17. Coriander is the dried fruit of Coriandrum sativum L. 

18. Cumin seed is the fruit of Cuminum cyminum L. 

19. Dill seed is the fruit of Anethum graveole^is L. 

20. Fennel is the fruit of Foeniciilum foeniculum (L.) Karst. 

21. Ginger is the washed and dried or decorticated and dried rhizome of Zingiber zin- 

* Calculated from the total oxygen absorbed by the aqueous extract. 



522 STANDARDS OF PURITY. 

giber (L.) Karst., and contains not less than forty-two (42) percent of starch; not more 
than eight (8) percent of crude fiber, not more than six (6) percent of total ash, not more 
than one (i) percent of lime, and not more than three (3) percent of ash insoluble in hydro- 
chloric acid. 

22. Limed ginger, bleached ginger, is whole ginger coated with carbonate of lime and 
contains not more than ten (10) percent of ash, not more than four (4) percent of carbonate 
of lime, and conforrns in other respects to the standard for ginger. 

23. Horse-radish is the root of Roripa armoracia (L.) Hitchcock, either by itself or 
ground and mixed with vinegar. 

24. Mace is the dried arillus of Myristica fragrans Houttuyn, and contains not less than 
twenty (20) nor more than thirty (30) percent of non- volatile ether extract, not more than 
three (3) percent of total ash, and not more than five-tenths (0.5) percent of ash insoluble 
in hydrochloric acid, and not more than ten (10) percent of crude fiber. 

25. Macassar mace, Papua mace, is the dried arillus of Myristica argentea Warb. 

26. Bombay mace is the dried arillus of Myristica malabarica Lamarck. 

27. Marjoram is the leaf, flower and branch of Majorana majorana (L.) Karst. 

28. Mustard seed is the seed of Sinapis alba L. (white mustard), Brassica nigra (L.) 
Koch (black mustard), or Brassica juncea (L.) Cosson (black or brown mustard). 

29. Ground mustard is a powder made from mustard seed, with or without the removal 
of the hulls and a portion of the fixed oils, and contains not more than two and five-tenths 
(2.5) percent of starch and not more than eight (8) percent of total ash. 

30. Prepared mustard, German mustard, French mustard, mustard paste, is a paste com- 
posed of a mixture of ground mustard seed or mustard flour with salt, spices, and vinegar, 
and, calculated free from water, fat, and salt, contains not more than twenty-four (24) per- 
cent of carbohydrates, calculated as starch, determined according to the official methods, 
not more than twelve (12) percent of crude fiber nor less than thirty-five (35) percent of 
protein, derived solely from the materials named. 

31. Nutmeg is the dried seed of the Myristica fragrans Houttuyn, deprived of its testa, 
with or without a thin coating of lime, and contains not less than twenty-five (25) percent 
of non-volatile ether extract, not more than five (5) percent of total ash, not more than five- 
tenths (0.5) percent of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than ten (10) per- 
cent of crude fiber. 

32. Macassar nutmeg, Papua ntitnieg, male nutmeg, long nutmeg, is the dried seed of My- 
ristica argentea Warb. deprived of its testa. 



33. Black pepper is the dried immature berry of Piper nigrum L. and contains not less 
than six (6) percent of non-volatile ether extract, not less than twenty-five (25) percent of 
starch, not more than seven (7) percent of total ash, not more than two (2) percent of ash 
insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than fifteen (15) percent of crude fiber. One 
hundred parts of the non-volatile ether extract contain not less than three and one quarter 
(3.25) parts of nitrogen. Ground black pepper is the product made by grinding the entire 
berry and contains the several parts of the berry in their normal proportions. 

34. Long pepper is the dried fruit of Piper longum L. 

35. White pepper is the dried mature berry of Piper nigrum L. from which the outer 
coating or the outer and inner coatings have been removed and contains not less than six (6) 
percent of non-volatile ether extract, not less than fifty (50) percent of starch, not more than 
four (4) percent of total ash, not more than five-tenths (0.5) percent of ash insoluble in 
hydrochloric acid, and not more than five (5) percent of crude fiber. One hundred parts 
of the non-volatile ether extract contain not less than four (4) parts of nitrogen. 



FLAVORING EXTRACTS, 



623 



36. Saffroti is the dried stigma of Crocus sativus L. 

37. Sage is the leaf of Salvia officinalis L. 

38. Savory, summer savory, is the leaf, blossom, and branch of Satureja hortensis L. 

39. Thyme is the leaf and tip of blooming branches of Thymus vulgaris L. 

b. FLAVORING EXTRACTS. 

1. A flavoring extract* is a solution in ethyl alcohol of proper strength of the sapid and 
odorous principles derived from an aromatic plant, or parts of the plant, with or without 
its coloring matter, and conforms in name to the plant used in its preparation. 

2. Almond extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of bitter almonds, free from 
hydrocyanic acid, and contpns not less than one (i) percent by volume of oil of bitter 
almonds. 

2* Oil of bitter almonds, commercial, is the volatile oil obtained from the seed of the 
bitter almond {Amygdalus communis L.), the apricot {Prunus armeniaca L.), or the peach 
(Amygdalus persica L.). 

3. Anise extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of anise, and contains not less 
than three (3) percent by volume of oil of anise. 

3.* Oil of anise is the volatile oil obtained from the anise seed. 

4. Celery seed extract is the flavoring extract prepared from celery seed or the oil of 
celery seed, or both, and contains not less than three-tenths (0.3) percent by volume of oil 
of celery seed. 

4.* Oil of celery seed is the volatile oil obtained from celery seed. 

5. Cassia extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of cassia and contains not less 
than two (2) percent by volume of oil of cassia. 

5.* Oil of cassia is the lead-free volatile oil obtained from the leaves or bark of Cinna- 
momum cassia Bl., and contains not less than seventy-five (75) percent by weight of cin- 
namic aldehyde. 

6. Cinnamon extract is the flavoring extract prep*ared from oil of cinnamon, and con- 
tains not less than two (2) percent by volume of oil of cinnamon. 

6.* Oil of cinnamon is the lead-free volatile oil obtained from the bark of the Ceylon 
cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyne), and^contains not less than sixty-five (65) per- 
cent by weight of cinnamic aldehyde and not more than ten (10) percent by weight of 
eugenol. 

7. Clove extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of cloves, and contains not 
less than two (2) percent by volume of oil of cloves. 

7.* Oil of cloves is the lead-free, volatile oil obtained from cloves. 

8. Ginger extract is the flavoring extract prepared from ginger and contains in each 
one hundred (100) cubic centimeters, the alcohol-soluble matters from not less than twenty 
(20) grams of ginger. 

9. Lemojt extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of lemon, or from lemon 
peel, or both, and contains not less than five (5) percent by volume of oil of lemon. 

ga. Oil of lemon is the volatile oil obtained, by expression or alcoholic solution, from 
the fresh peel of the lemon {Citrus limonum L.), has an optical rotation (25° C.) of not less 
than +60° in a 100-millimeter tube, and contains not less than four (4) percent by weight 
of citral. 

ID. Terpeneless extract of lemon is the flavoring extract prepared by shaking oil of lemon 
with dilute alcohol, or by dissolving terpeneless oil of lemon in dilute alcohol, and contains 
not less than two-tenths (0.2) percent by weight of citral derived from oil of lemon. 

* The flavoring extracts herein described are intended solely for food purposes and are not to be 
confounded with similar preparations described in the Pharmacopoeia for medicinal purposes. 



624 



STANDARDS OF PURITY. 



loa. Terpeneless oil of lemon is oil of lemon from which all or nearly all of the tcrpenes 
have been removed. 

11. Nutmeg extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of nutmeg, and contains 
not less than two (2) percent by volume of oil of nutmeg. 

I la. Oil oj nutmeg is the volatile oil obtained from nutmegs. 

12. Orange extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of orange, or from orange 
peel, or both, and contains not less than live (5) percent by volume of oil of orange. 

12a. Oil oj orange is the volatile oil obtained, by expression or alcoholic solution, from 
the fresh peel of the orange {Citrus anrantium L.) and has an optical rotation (25° C.) of 
not less than + 95° in a 100-millimeter tube. 

13. Terpeneless extract of orange is the flavoring extract prepared by shaking oil of 
orange with dilute alcohol, or by dissolving terpeneless oil or orange in dilute alcohol, 
and corresponds in flavoring strength to orange extract. 

13a. Terpeneless oil of orange is oil of orange from which all or nearly all of the terpenes 
have been removed. 

14. Peppermint extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of peppermint, or 
from peppermint, or both, and contains not less than three (3) percent by volume of oil 
of peppermint. 

14a. Peppermint is the leaves and flowering tops of Mentha piperita L. 
146. Oil of peppermint is the volatile oil obtained from peppermint and contains not 
less than fifty (50) percent by weight of menthol. 

15. Rose extract is the flavoring extract prepared from otto of roses, with or without 
red rose petals, and contains not less than four-tenths (0.4) percent by volume of otto of 
roses. 

15a. Otto of roses is the volatile oil obtained from the petals of Rosa damascena Mill., 
R. centifolia L., or R. moschata Herrm. 

16. Savory extract is the flavoring extract prepared Irom oil of savory, or from savory, 
or both, and contains not less than thirty-five hundredths (0.35) percent by volume of oil 
of savory. , 

1 6(2. Oil of savory is the volatile oil obtained from savory. 

17. Spearmint extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of spearmint, or from 
spearmint, or both, and contains not less than three (3) percent by volume of oil of spear- 
mint. 

1 7a. Spearmint is the leaves and flowering tops of Mentha spicata L. 
176. Oil of spearmint is the volatile oil obtained from spearmint. 

18. Star anise extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of star anise, and con- 
tains not less than three (3) percent by volume of oil of star anise. 

1 8a. Oil of star anise is the volatile oil distilled from the fruit of the star anise (Illicium 
verum Hook). 

ig. Sweet basil extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of sweet basil, or from 
sweet basil, or both, and contains not less than one-tenth (o.i) percent by volume of oil 
of sweet basil. 

19a. Sweet basil, basil, is the leaves and tops of Ocymnm basilicum L. 

igb. Oil of sweet basil is the volatile oil obtained from basil. 

20. Sweet marjoram extract, marjoram extract, is the flavoring extract prepared from 
the oil of marjoram, or from marjoram, or both, and contains not less than one (i) percent 
by volume of oil of marjoram. 

20a. Oil of marjoram is the volatile oil obtained from marjoram. 

21. Thyme extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of thyme, or from thyme, 
or Vjoth, and contains not less than two-tenths (0.2) percent by volume of oil of thyme. 



VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 5,- 

2 1(7. Oil of thyme is the volatile oil obtained from thyme. 

22. Tonka extract is the flavoring extract prepared from tonka bean, with or without 
sugar or glycerine, and contains not less than one-tenth (o. i ) percent by weight of coumarin 
extracted from the tonka bean, together with a corresponding proportion of the other soluble 
matters thereof. 

22a. Tonka bean is the seed of Coiimaroiina odorata Aublet (Dipleryx odorata (Aubl.) 
Willd.). 

23. Vanilla extract is the flavoring extract prepared from vanilla bean, with or without 
sugar or glycerine, and contains in one hundred (100) cubic centimenters the soluble matters 
from not less than ten (10) grams of the vanilla bean. 

23a. Vanilla bean is the dried, cured fruit of Vanilla planifolia Andrews. 

24. Wintergreen extract is the flavoring extract prepared from oil of wintergreen, and 
contains not less than three (3) percent by volume of oil of wintergreen. 

24a. Oil of wintergreen is the volatile oil distilled from the leaves of the Gaultheria 
procumbens L. 

C. EDIBLE VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS. 

I. Olive oil is the oil obtained from the sound, mature fruit of the cultivated olive tree 
{Olea europcea L.) and subjected to the usual refining processes; is free from rancidity; 
has a refractive index (25° C.) not less than one and forty-six hundred and sixty ten- 
thousandths (1.4660) and not exceeding one and forty-six hundred and eighty ten-thou- 
sandths (1.4680); and an iodin number not less than seventy-nine (79) and not exceed- 
ing ninety (00). 

I. Virgin olive oil is olive oil obtained from the first pressing of carefully selected, hand- 
picked olives. 

3. Cottonseed oil is the oil obtained from the seeds of cotton plants {Gossypiiim hir- 
sutum L., G. barbadense L., or G. herbaceum L.) and subjected to the usual refining processes; 
is free from rancidity: has a refractive index (25° C.) not less than one and forty-seven hun- 
dred ten-thousandths (1.4700) and not exceeding one and forty-seven hundred and twenty- 
five ten-thousandths (1.4725); and an iodin number not less than one hundred and four 
(104) and not exceeding one hundred and ten (no). 

4. "Winter-yellow''' cottonseed oil is expressed-cottonseed oil from which a portion of 
the stearin has been separated by chilling and pressure, and has an iodin number not less 
than one hundred and ten (no) and not exceeding one hundred and sixteen (116). 

5. Peanut oil, arachis oil, earthnut oil, is the oil obtained from the peanut (Arachis 
hypogaa L.) and subjected to the usual refining processes; is free from rancidity; has a 
refractive index (25° C.) not less than one and forty-six hundred and ninety ten-thousandths 
(1.4690) and not exceeding one and forty-seven hundred and seven ten-thousandths (1.4707); 
and an iodin number not less than eighty-seven (87) and not exceeding one hundred (100). 

6. "Cold-drawn" peanut oil* is peanut oil obtained by pressure without heating. 

7. Sesame oil, gingili oil, teel oil, is the oil obtained from the seeds of the sesame plants 
{Sesamum orientate L. and 5. radiatum Schum. and Thonn.) and subjected to the usual 
refining processes; is free from rancidity; has a refractive index (25° C.) not less than one 
and forty-seven hundred and four ten-thousandths (1.4707) and not exceeding one and 
forty-seven hundred and seventeen ten-thousandths (1.47 17); and an iodin number not less 
than one hundred and three (103) and not exceeding one hundred and twelve (112). 

8. "Cold-drawn" sesame oil* is ses.ame oil obtained by pressure without heating. 

9. Poppy-seed oil is the oil obtained from the seed of the poppy (Papaver somniferum 
L.) subjected to the usual refining processes and free from rancidity. 

* The fixing of limits for chemical and physical properties is reserved for future consideration. 
41 



626 



STANDARDS OF PURITY. 



10. White poppy-seed oil, " cold-draivn" poppy-seed oil,* is poppy-seed oil of the first 
pressing without heating. 

11. Coconut oil* is the oil obtained from the kernels of the coconut {Cocos nucijera 
L.) and subjected to the usual refining processes and free from rancidity. 

12. Cochin oil is coconut oil prepared in cochin (Malabar). 

13. Ceylon oil is coconut oil prepared in Ceylon. 

14. Copra oil is coconut oil prepared from copra, the dried kernels of the coconut. 

15. Rape-seed oil, colza oil, * is the oil obtained from the seeds of the rape plant {Brassica 
napus L.) and subjected to the usual refining processes and free from rancidity. 

16. "Cold-drawn" rape-seed oil* is rape-seed oil obtained by the first pressing without 
heating. 

17. Sunflower oil* is the oil obtained from the seeds of the sunflower (Helianthus 
annuus L.) and subjected to the usual refining processes and free from rancidity. 

18. "Cold-drawn" sunflower oil* is sunflower oil obtained by the first pressing without 
heating. 

19. Maize oil, corn oil,* is the oil obtained from the germ of the maize {Zea mays L.) 
and subjected to the usual refining processes and free from rancidity. 

20. Cocoa butter, cacao butter, is the fat obtained from roasted, sound cocoa beans, 
and subjected to the usual refining processes; is free from rancidity; has a refractive 
index (40° C.) not less than one and forty-five hundred and sixty-six ten-thousandths (1.4566) 
and not exceeding one and forty-five hundred and ninety-eight ten-thousandths (1.4598); 
an iodin number not less than thirty-three (33) and not exceeding thirty-eight (38) ; and 
a melting-point not lower than 30° C. nor higher than 35° C. 

21. Cottonseed oil stearin is the solid product made by chilling cottonseed oil and 
separating the solid portion by filtration, with or without pressure, and having an iodin 
number not less than eighty-five (85) and not more than one hundred (100). 

E. Tea, Coffee, and Cocoa Products. 

a. TEA. 

I. Tea is the leaves and leaf buds of different species of Thea, prepared by the usual 
trade processes of fermenting, drying, and firing; meets the provisions of the act of Congress 
approved March 2, 1897, and the regulations made in conformity therewith (Treasury 
Department Circular 16, February 6, 1905); conforms in variety and place of production 
to the name it bears; and contains not less than four (4) nor more than seven (7) percent 
of ash. 

b. COFFEE. 

1. Coffee is the seed of Coffea arabica L. or Cofjea liberica Bull., freed from all but a 
small portion of its spermoderm, and conforms in variety and place of production to 
the name it bears. 

2. Roasted coffee is coffee which by the action of heat has become brown and developed 
its characteristic aroma, and contains not less than ten (10) percent of fat and not less 
than three (3) percent of ash. 

C. COCOA AND COCOA PRODUCTS. 

1. Cocoa beans are the seeds of the cacao tree, Theobroma cacao L. 

2. Cocoa nibs, cracked cocoa, is the roasted, broken cocoa bean freed from its shell 
or husk. 

3. Chocolate, plain chocolate, bitter chocolate, chocolate liquor, bitter chocolate coatings, 

♦ The fixing of limits for chemical and physical properties is resers'ed for future consideration. 



BEVERAGES. 



627 



is the solid or plastic mass obtained by grinding cocoa nibs without the removal of fat or 
other constituents except the germ, and contains not more than three (3) percent of ash 
insoluble in water, three and fifty hundredths (3.50) percent of crude fiber, and nine (9) 
percent of starch, and not less than forty-five (45) percent of cocoa fat. 

4. Sic'eet chocolate, sweet chocolate coatings, is chocolate mixed with sugar (sucrose), 
with or without the addition of cocoa butter, spices, or other flavoring materials, and 
contains in the sugar- and fat-free residue no higher percentage of either ash, fiber, or 
starch than is found in the sugar- and fat-free residue of chocolate. 

5. Cocoa, powdered cocoa, is cocoa nibs, with or without the germ, deprived of a portion 
of its fat and finely pulverized, and contains percentages of ash, crude fiber, and starch 
corresponding to those in chocolate after correction for fat removed. 

6. Sweet cocoa, sweetened cocoa, is cocoa mixed with sugar (sucrose), and contains 
not more than sixty (60) percent of sugar (sucrose), and in the sugar- and fat-free residue 
no higher percentage of either ash, crude fiber, or starch than is found in the sugar- and 
fat-free residue of chocolate. 

F. Beverages. 

a. FRUIT JUICES FRESH, SWEET, .\ND FERMENTED. 

I. FRESH AND 2. SWEET. 

(Schedules in preparation.) 

3. FERMENTED FRUIT JUICES. 

1. Wine is the product made by the normal alcoholic fermentation of the juice of 
sound, ripe grapes, and the usual cellar treatment,* and contains not less than seven 
(7) nor more than sixteen (i6) percent of alcohol, by volume, and, in one hundred (loo) 
cubic centimeters (20° C), not more than one-tenth (c^.i) gram of sodium chlorid nor more 
than two-tenths (0.2) gram of potassium sulfate; and for red vidne not more than fourteen 
hundredths (0.14) gram, and for white wine not more than twelve hundredths (0.12) 
gram of volatile acids produced by fermentation and calculated as acetic acid. Red wine 
is wine containing the red coloring matter of the skins of grapes. White wine is wine 
made from white grapes or the expressed fresh juice of other grapes. 

2. Dry wine is wine in which the fermentation of the sugars is practically complete 
and which contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20° C), less than one (i) 
gram of sugars and for dry red wine not less than sixteen hundredths (0.16) gram of 
grape ash and not less than one and six-tenths (1.6) grams of sugar-free grape solids, 
and for dry white wine not less than thirteen hundredths (0.13) gram of grape ash and 
not less than one and four-tenths (1.4) grams of sugar-free grape solids. 

3. Fortified dry wine is dry wine to which brandy has been added,, but which con- 
forms in all other particulars to the standard of dry wine. 

4. Sweet wine is wine in which the alcoholic fermentation has been arrested, and 
which contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20° C), not less than one (i) 
gram of sugars, and for sweet red wine not less than sixteen hundredths (0.16) gram of 
grape ash, and for sweet white wine not less than thirteen hundredths (0.13) gram of 
grape ash. 

5. Fortified sweet wine is sweet wine to which wine spirits have been added. By 
act of Congress, "sweet wine" used for making fortified sweet wine and "wine spirits" 
used for such fortification are defined as follows (sec. 43, Act of October i, 1890, 26 Stat., 
567, as amended by section 68, Act of August 27, 1894, 28 Stat., 509, and further amended 

* The subject of sulfurous acid in wine is reserved for consideration in connection with the 
schedule, " Preservatives and Coloring Matters." 



628 STANDARDS OF PURITY. 

by Act of Congress approved June 7, 1906): "That the wine spirits mentioned in section 
42 of this act is the product resulting from the distillation of fermented grape juice to 
which water may have been added prior to, during, or after fermentation, for the sole 
purpose of facilitating the fermentation and economical distillation thereof, and shall be 
held to include the products from grapes or their residues, commonly known as grape 
brandy; and the pure sweet wine, which may be fortified free of tax, as provided in said 
section, is fermented grape juice only, and shall contain no other substance whatever 
introduced before, at the time of, or after fermentation, except as herein expressly provided; 
and such sweet wine shall contain not less than four per centum of saccharine matter, 
which saccharine strength may be determined by testing with Balling's saccharometer or 
must scale, such sweet wine, after the evaporation of the spirits contained therein, and 
restoring the sample tested to original volume by addition of water: Provided, That the 
addition of pure boiled or condensed grape must or pure crystallized cane or beet sugar 
or pure anhydrous sugar to the pure grape juice aforesaid, or the fermented product of 
such grape juice prior to the fortification provided by this Act for the sole purpose of per- 
fecting sweet wine according to commercial standard, or the addition of water in such 
quantities only as may be necessary in the mechanical operation of grape conve)'ers, 
crushers, and pipes leading to fermenting tanks, shall not be excluded by the definition 
of pure sweet wine aforesaid: Provided, however. That the cane or beet sugar, or pure 
anhydrous sugar, or water, so used shall not in either case be in excess of ten (10) per 
centum of the weight of the wine to be fortified under this Act: And provided further. 
That the addition of water herein authorized shall be under such regulations and limita- 
tions as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of 
the Treasury, may from time to time prescribe; but in no case shall such wines to which 
water has been added be eligible for fortification under the prosivions of this Act where 
the same, after fermentation and before fortification, have an alcoholic strength of less 
than five per centum of their volume." 

6. Sparkling wine is wine in which the after part of the fermentation is completed 
in the bottle, the sediment being disgorged and its place supplied by wine or sugar liquor, 
and which contains, in one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20° C), not less than twelve 
hundredths (0.12) gram of grape ash. 

7. Modified wine, ameliorated wine, corrected wine, is the product made by the alco- 
holic fermentation, with the usual cellar treatment, of a mixture of the juice of sound, 
ripe grapes with sugar (sucrose), or a sirup containing not less than sixty-five (65) percent 
of sugar (sucrose), and in quantity not more than enough to raise the alcoholic strength 
after fermentation, to eleven (11) percent by volume. 

8. Raisin wine is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation of an infusion of 
dried or evaporated grapes, or of a mixture of such infusion or of raisins with grape juice. 

b. MEAD, ROOT BEER, ETC. 

(Schedule in preparation.) 

C. MALT LIQUORS. 

(Schedule in preparation.) 

d. SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS. 

(Schedule in preparation.) 

e. CARBONATED WATERS, ETC. 

(Schedule in preparation.) 



SALT. 629 

G. Vinegar. 

1. Vinegar, cider vinegar, apple vinegar, is the product made by the alcoholic and 
subsequent acetous fermentations of the juice of apples, is Icevo-rotatory, and contains 
not less than four (4) grams of acetic acid, not less than one and six-tenths (1.6) grams 
of apple solids, of which not more than fifty (50) percent are reducing sugars, and not 
less than twenty-five hundredths (0.25) gram of apple ash in one hundred (100) cubic 
centimeters (20° C); and the water-soluble ash from one hundred (100) cubic centimeters 
(20° C.) of the vinegar contains not less than ten (10) milligrams of phosphoric acid (P2O5), 
and rerjuires not less than thirty (30) cubic centimeters of decinormal acid to neutralize 
its alkalinity. 

2. Wine vinegar, grape vinegar, is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent 
acetous fermentations of the juice of grapes and contains, in one hundred (100) cubic 
centimeters (20° C), not less than four (4) grams of acetic acid, not less than one (i.o) 
gram of grape solids, and not less than thirteen hundredths (c.13) gram of grape ash. 

3. Malt vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fer- 
mentations, without distillation, of an infusion of barley malt or cereals whose starch 
has been converted by malt, is dextro-rotatory, and contains, in one hundred (100) cubic 
centimeters (20° C), not less than four (4) grams of acetic acid, not less than two (2) 
grams of solids, and not less than two-tenths (0.2) gram of ash; and the water-soluble 
ash from one hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20° C.) of the vinegar contains not less 
than nine (9) milligrams of phosphoric acid (P2O5), and requires not less than four (4) 
cubic centimeters of decinormal acid to neutralize its alkalinity. 

4. Sugar vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fer- 
mentations of solutions of sugar, sirup, molasses, or refiners' sirup, and contains, in one 
hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20° C), not less than four (4) grams of acetic acid. 

5. Glucose vinegar is the product made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fer- 
mentations of solutions of starch sugar or glucose, is , dextro-rotatory, and contains, in one 
hundred (100) cubic centimeters (20° C), not less than four (4) grams of acetic acid. 

6. Spirit vinegar, distilled vinegar, grain vinegar, is the product made by the acetous 
fermentation of dilute distilled alcohol, and contains, in one hundred (100) cubic cen- 
timeters (20° C), not less than four (4) grams ofacetic acid. 

III. SALT, 
I. Table salt, dairy salt, is fine-grained crystalline salt containing on a water-free 
basis, not more than one and four-tenths (1.4) percent of calcium sulfate (CaSO^), 
nor more than five-tenths (0.5) percent of calcium and magnesium chlorids (CaCU and 
MgCl2), nor more than one-tenth (o.i) percent of matters insoluble in water. 

IV. PRESERVATIVES AND COLORING MATTERS. 
(Schedules in preparation.) 



INDEX. 



A. 

Acid in fruits, 369 
Acorn, 413 

oil, 396 
Adulteration, frequency, 57 

simple tests, 593 
Adulterations, gross physical, 593 

obsolete, 595 
Aerating agents, 251 
Alcohol in confectionery, 485 

in mother's diet, 508 

industrial, 297, 481 
Alewife, 121 
Allspice, 322 
Almond oil, 396 
Almonds, 414 

Alum residues, character, 253 
Amido bodies, 89 
Amids, nutritive value, 567 
Anchovy, 122 

Animals, preparation as food, 12 
Anise, 323 
Anona, 343 

preserves, 344 
Appendix, food standards, 501 

food and drugs act, 533 
Applebutter, 385 
Apples, 330 

acidity, 330 

adulterations, 330 

composition, 331, 332 

dietetic value, 332 

dried, 335 

evaporated, 335 

length of harvest, 333 

pectose content, 333 

picking and care, ^^;^ 

preparation for drying, 334 

storage, 334 

tannin content, 334 

varieties, 330 
Arrowroot, 317 

Bermuda, 318 

Madagascar, 319 

South African, 320 
Artichoke, 274 

composition, 275 

Jerusalem, 274 
Artificial colors, 594 
Ash, 9 



Ash of tropical fruits, 368 
Asparagus, 275 
Atropin, 448 
Avocado, 344 



B. 

Bacillus Bulgaricus, 554-555 

advertising claims, 556 
Bacon, canned, 48 

composition of canned, 48, 49 
Bacterial characteristics of milk, 538 
Baking powders, 251 
alum, 252 

cream of tartar, 252 
phosphate, 252 
residues, 253 
Bananas, 345 

composition, 347 
Barley, 217 

acreage and yield, 217 
composition, 217 
protein, 218 
starch, 218 
Bay leaf, 323 
Bean, 275 
butter, 276 
green, 276 
kidney, 276 
lima, 276 
string, 276 
Beans, adulteration of canned, 308 
canned, 307, 312 , 
composition of canned_, 307 
Bechi test, 66 
Beechnuts, 415 

Beef, adulteration of potted, 52 
commercial cuts, 1 7 
composition of canning, 43 

potted, 5s 
extract, 79 
names, 80 

nitrogenous bodies, 79 
nutritive properties, 80 
fat crystals, 67 
juice, 81 

composition, 81 
preservatives, 81 
trade-names, 82 
potted, 52 



631 



632 



INDEX. 



Beef tea, 84 

composition, 85 
Beefsteak, 21 
Bees, swarming, 488 
Beet sugar, 456 
historical, 457 
manufacture, 461-464 
Beets, 277 

Benzoic acid, simple test, 557 
Beri-beri, 553 
Berkshire pig, analytical data, 29, 30 

percentages of parts, 31, 32 
Beverages in diabetes, 575 
Biscuits, composition, 258 
Black bass, 122 

strap, 481 
Blackberries, 342 
Bleached flour, detection, 607 

gasoline test, 607 
Blood preparations, 83 
Bluefish, 122 
Bondon cheese, 208 
Bonnyclabber, 181 
Borax, simple test, 597 
Boric acid, simple test, 597 
Bottle-feeding, dangers, 501 
Brandied fruit, 385 
Brazil-nut, 415 
Bread, 249 

comparative nutritive properties, 256 

composition, 254, 255 

quantity of ash, 256 
of sugar, 256 

typical, 25s 

varieties, 249 
Breakfast foods, 267 
classification, 268 
composition, 268 
value, 271 
Brie, manufacture, 207 
Brook trout, 149 
Brown grease, 71 
Brussels sprouts, 278 
Buckwheat, 219 

acreage, 219 

adulterations, 221 

cakes, 220 

composition, 219 

milling, 219 

starch, 221 
Butcher's lard, 70 
Butter, 182-187 

adulterated, 186 

affected by food, 186 

coloring, 185 

melting point, 186 

pure and renovated, 608 

renovated, 186 

salting, 183 

standard, 186 

treatment, 182 
Buttermilk, 181 
Butternut, 416 



C. 

Cabbage, 278 
Cacao butter, 410 

• composition, 181 
Cainito, 366 
Cakes, 265 

adulteration, 266 

composition, 266 
Calories, 9 

Calorific value, computation, 501 
Camembert, manufacture, 206 
Candy, food value, 483 
Cane sirup, 475 

composition, 476 
geographical distribution, 475 

sugar, manufacture, 465, 466 
Canna edulis, 318 
Canned corn, adulteration, 228 
souring and swelling, 312 

goods, examination, 607 
Canning industries, importance, 386-38S 

liquid, composition, 47 

principles, 306 

without parboiling, 47 
Cans, character, 311 
Cantaloupe, 284 
Capers, 323 
Capons, 103 

Caramel, simple test, 599 
Caraway, 323 

Carbohydrates, digestion by infants, 518 
Carcasses, preparation of, 14 
Carp, 123 
Carrot, 279 

Casein, preparations, 215 
Caseinogen, 530 
Cashew, 348 
Cassia, 323 

buds, 323 
Catfish, 123 
Cat's milk, 513 
Cauliflower, 279 
Caviar, 145 
Celery, 280 

seed, 323 
Cepe, 445 

Cereal, addition to infants' foods, 517 
Cereals, detection in coffee, 604 
Certified milk, 547 

inadequacy, 547 
Ceylon oil, 411 

Cheddar cheese, manufacture, 204 
Cheese, 190-216 

adulteration and misbranding, 192 

American, 197 

artificial coloring, 192 

bacterial activity, 211 

Cheddar, 203 

chemical changes during ripening, 212- 
214 

Cheshire, 203 

comparative composition, 199 

cottage, 195 



INDEX. 



^33 



Cheese, cream, 201 

curing, 200 

digestibility, 214 

effect of cold storage, 215 

filled, 194 

French varieties, 206 

goats' milk, 192 

historical, 190 

kinds, 191 

manufacture, 196, 197 

of foreign types, 201 

preservatives, 194 

principal English kinds, 203 

quality of American, 200 

raw materials, 194 

sage, 203 

salting, 199 

Stilton, 203 
Chemical composition, index of value, 525 

leavening agents, 254 

preservatives in milk, 532 
preservation, 37 

terms, explanation, 8 

versus condimental preservatives, 594 
Cherries, 336 

canned, 370 

maraschino, 371 

varieties, 337 
Chestnut, 416 

composition, 417 
Chicken, 95 

adulteration, 103 
of potted, 102 

composition of white meat, loi 

preserved, 102 
Chickens, artificial feeding, 99 

drawn and undrawn, 100 

fresh killed, 99 

preparation for food, 96 

preparing for market, 99 
Chicks, influence of temperature, 97 

market, 98 
Chicory, 280 

color test, 603 

detection, 603 

roasted, 280 
Chinese nut, 417 
Cinnamon, 323 
Citrus fruits, 348 
Clams, 153 

canned, 156 

chowder, 79 

soup, 79 
Cloves, 323 
Coconut butter, 411 

oil, 411 
Cod, common, 124 

composition, 125 

liver oil, adulteration, 166 
salted and dried, 125 
Codfish, 124 
balls, 126 
Coffee, adulteration, 602 



Cold storage, effect on meats, 35 

of milk, 532 
Coloring, artificial, 380 
matter, 55 

indirect, 55 
Colors, artificial, 594 
Colza oil, 407 
Comb honey, 489 
Commercial formulas for infants' 



foods, 



525 
Condensed milk, 533 
composition, 534 
difiiculties of manufacture, 535 
sohds, 535 
Condimental substance, curing, 35, 36 
Condiments, 322 
Confectionery, 482 
alcohol forbidden, 486 
manufacture, 482 
materials, 482 
mineral colors, 485 
wholesomeness, 484 
Confections, adulteration, 483 
Conger eel, 127 
Consumer, rights of, 14 
Cooking, 3 
Copper, in peas, 313 
simple test, 598 
tests, 314, 598 
Copra oil, 411 
Coriander, 324 
Com bread, 232 
canned, 227 
meal, 230 

adulteration, 232 
pudding, 257 
Cottonseed oil, 397 
Bechi test, 66 
^ detection, 600 
extraction with petroleum, 401 
Halphen test, 65 
magnitude of industry, 397 
manufacture, 397, 398 
refining, 399, 400 
Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, 

559 
Cow's milk, 513 
Crabs, 155 

canned, 156 
Cramming machine, 1 1 1 
Cranberry, 281 
Crawfish, 156 
Cream, 175 

standards, 176 
Creatin, 90 
Cress, 281 

Cucumber, 281 ' 

Curd, cutting, 198 

forming, 197 

gathering, 199 

heating, 198 

milling, 199 

separating, 199 



634 



INDEX. 



Cured meats, canned, 59 
Cumin seed, 324 
Cuts of beef, 15 

D. 
Death rate, influence of milk, 548 
Deviled meats, potted, 52 
Dewberry, 342 
Diabetes, cause, 569 
nature, 567 
test diet, 572-573 
Diabetic liours, composition, 570 
foods, foreign, 576 
composition, 576 
Diet at weaning, 502 
during second year, 503 
in diabetes, 567 
in nephritis, 577 
in obesity, 577, 578 
Dietaries for generous appetites, ' 
Dill, 324 
Dogs' milk, 513 
Dried meats, 85 
Drying milk-, 536 
Duck, 104 

composition, 108 
varieties, 105 
Aylesbury, 105 
Cayuga, 105 
crested white, 105 
East Indian, 105 
gray, 105 
Pekin, 105 
Rover, 105 
white call, 105 
white Muscovy, 105 
Dust, protection of food, 550 



Edam cheese, 210 
Edible oils, uses, 395 

parts, names, 15 
Eels, 126 
Egg plant, 282 

substitutes, 115 
Eggs, 112 

broken, 115 

candling, 605 

cold storage, 114 

composition, 113 

detection of stale, 604 

dried, 115 

parasites, 116 

poisonous principles, 116 

preservation, 113 

salt solution test, 605 
Emmenthaler cheese, manufacture, 207 
Entire wheat flour, 244 
Enzyme action, effect of low temperature, 

23 
Ether extract, 9 



Evaporated milk, 534 
Extracts, miscellaneous, 562 
classification, 562-563 



F. 

Fat babies, 498 

identiiication of meats, 25 

in milk, variability, 500 

products, inedible, 70 

test for adulteration, 51 

variation in mothers' milk, 507 
Fats, diet in obesity, 577 
Feeding, frequency, 499 

infants, quantity, 499 
Fennel, 324 

Ferments, spontaneous, 250 
Fiber, 9 
Figs, 349 

caprification, 350 

composition, 349 

Smyrna, 349 
Filberts, 418 
Fish, average composition, 151 

canning, 152 

classification, 117, 118 
by composition, 120, 121 

cold storage, 151 

drying and salting, 152 

edible portion, 119 

eggs, composition, 146 

food value, 153 

marketing, 151 

oils, 165 

principal constituents, 119 

products, adulteration, 152 
Flavoring extracts, 326 

adulteration, 605 
Flavors, artificial, 380 
Flesh, edible, 11 
Flies, contamination, 550 
Flounder, summer, 127 
Flour, 242 

adulterations, 247 

age, 248 

bleaching, 247, 607 

commercial value, 244 

composition, 245 

special names, 243 
. standards, 248 

substitutes, 248 

varieties, 242 
Fluorids in fish, 151 
Foods, care in the home, 549 

cause of disease, 553 

classification, 2, 7 

composition, 6 

condimental, 8 

contamination by domesticated animals, 
550 
by flies and mosquitoes, 550 

ordinary natural, 552 

protection from dust, 550 



INDEX. 



63 s 



Foods, social functions, 5 
standards, 613-620 
toleration, 551 
Fowls, slaughtering, in 
Fresh meat, adulteration of canned, 57 
delivery to consumers, 21 
preservation, 23 
Fruit, brandied, 385 
butter, 385 
definition, 326 
juices, preservatives, 557 
selection, 375 
sirups, 373 

adulterations, 374 
composition, 373 
imitation, 374 
Fruits, acid content, 369 
adulteration of canned, 372 
canned, 370 
characteristics, 327 
composition of ash, 376 
crystallized, 483 
nutritive uses, 328 
sugar content, 369 
Fungi, food value, 454 



Garlic, 282 
Geese, feeding, 106 
Gelatine, 90 

addition to meat extracts, 563 
adulteration, 91 
detection in ice cream, 610-61 1 
preparation, 90 
raw materials, 90, 91 
Gelatinoids, nutritive value, 564 
Gervais cheese, 208 
Ginger, 324 
Glucose, 479 
detection, 600 
harmful constituents, 485 
used in honey, 493 
Gluten, 241 
bread, 569 

preparation, 571 
flour, 244, 569 
composition, 570 
standard, 569 
separation, 245 
testing, 246, 247 
Goats' milk content of fat, 510-511 

value, 510 
Goggle-eye, 135 
Goose, 105 

composition, 108 
varieties, 106 
Gooseberry, 342 
Gorgonzola cheese, 211 
Gourds, 282 
Graham flour, 243 
Grape fruit, 351 

composition, 351 



Grapes, 337 

composition, 338 
Graylings, 128 
Green turtle, 157 

soup, 79 
Gruel for infants, 505, 506 
Gruyere cheese, 210 
Guava, 352 

composition, 352 

preserves, 352 

H. 

Hake, 128 
Halibut, 128 
Halphen test, 65 

Ham and bacon, adulteration of canned, 50 
canned, 48 

composition of canned, 48 
Hazelnut, 419 

oil, 401 
Herring, 129 
Hicaco, 352 
Hickory-nut, 419 
Hippuric acid, avoidance, 577 
Hogfish, 130 
Hogs' milk, 513 
Home pasteurization, 540 

Straus method, 541 
Honey, adulteration, 493 
ash, 492 

cane .sugar adulterant, 494 
comb, 489 

dextrose and levulose, 492 
dis'tribution of industry, 489 
extracted, 490 
glucose, 493 
historical, 486 
-hives, 488 

invert sugar content, 494, 601 
polarization, 491 
preparation, 487 
properties, 491 
strained, 491 
sucrose content, 492 
water content, 491 
Horse mackerel, 130 ' 
meat, canned, 57 
composition, 58 
detection, 58 
Horse-radish, 283 
Huckleberry, 342 



I. 

Ice chest, care, 550 

Illinois State Board of Health, diet in tu- 
berculosis, 586-587 
Immature infants, feeding, 498 
Incubator, 96, 97 
Indian corn, 222 

acreage and yield, 222 

adulteration of canned, 310 



636 



INDEX. 



Indian corn, canned, 308 

comparative digestibility, 257 

composition of canned, 309 

extent of canning industry, 309 

starch, 229 

varieties, 223 
Infant feeding, after second year, 504 

commercial literature, 520 
nutrition, fundamental principles, 521 
Infants' and invalids' foods, 497 
foods, 497 

analyses, 526, 590, 591 

calories, 500 

classes, 551 

commercial formulas, 525 

composition, 499, 500 

multiplicity, 513 

solid, 498 

standard, 514 

substitutes, 518 
Inspection, 13 

Intestines of hogs, disposition, 69 
Introduction, i 
Invalids' foods, 497, 498, 549 

analyses, 590-591 
Invert sugar, detection, 601 



Jams, 375, 376 

adulteration, 378, 379 
composition, 377, 378 
compound, 383 

Jellies, 375, 379 
adulteration, 380 
coloring, 380 
composition, 380, 381 
compound, 383 
manufacture, 381 
preservatives, 382 

Jerusalem artichoke, 274 



K. 

Kale, 283 

Kedzie, farinometer, 246 
Kephir, 179 
Ketchup, colors, 317 

refuse material, 317 

tomato, 316 
Kettle-rendered lard, 68 
Kidney bean, 276 
Kitchen sanitation, 551 
Koumiss, 179 
Kumquat, 353 



Lake herring, 130 
Lamb chops, 22 

commercial cuts, 19 
Lard, 63 

adulteration, 65 



Lard, chemical properties, 75 

color reaction, 73 

commercial classification, 68 

composition, 64 

crystals, 67 

detection of adulterations, 65 

leaf, 64 

melting point, 73 

names of kinds, 64 

oil, 94 

adulteration, 94 
properties, 94 

parts of fat used for making, 63 

physical properties, 73 

properties, 75 

of adulterated, 76 

rendering, 71, 72 

rise of temperature, 73, 74 

steam, 64 

stearin, 71 

summary, 76, 77 
Leaf lard, 68 
Leek, 284 
Lemon extract, 606 

test of purity, 607 
Lemons, 353 
Lethal dose, 39, 40 
Lettuce, 284 
Limburger cheese, 208 

composition, 209 
Lime, 354 

juice, adulteration, 354 
Loaves, size, 259 

texture, 259 
Lobster, 155 

canned, 156 
Longevity, influence of sour milk, 554 
Loomis, rules for eating, 588 



M. 

Macaroni, 260 

composition, 260, 263 

domestic, 260 

manufacture, 263 
Mace, 324 
Mackerel, 131 
Maize, 222, 223 

composition, 223 

early varieties, 227 

flour, 230, 231 

proteins, 227 

variation, 227 
Malted foods, 516 
Mamey Colorado, 354 

de Santo Domingo, 355 
Mango, 356 
Maple sirup, 472 
ash, 473 
composition, 473 

sugar, 467, 469 
Maranon, 348 
Mares' milk, 513 



INDEX. 



637 



Marjoram, 325 
Marmalade, 382 

Meat broth, composition of ash, 86 
chemical detection, 24 
composition of fresh and canned, 46 
detection of different kinds, 24 
disposition of fragments, 23 
dried, 25 
extract, active principles, 86 

adulteration, 86 

kinds of preparations, 88, 89 

nitrogenous bases, 88 

relation of price and nutritive value, 87 
extracts, 560 

analyses, 565 

preparation, 561 

solid, 561 

substitutes, 561 
food classification, 12 
free diet, advantages over disadvantages, 

584-585 
industry, magnitude, 6r 
juice, composition of ash, 86 
juices, 560 

analyses, 564 
microscopic appearance, 24 
odor and taste, 24 
powders, analyses, 565, 566 
preparation for canning, 40-41 
Meats, II 

adulterations of comminuted, 54 

deviled, 54 

miscellaneous, 54 

mixed, 54 

potted, 54 
effects of cold storage, 35 
methods of preservation, 34, 35 
pickled, 26 
potted, 51 

summary of data, 92, 93 
Medicinal foods, analyses, 592 

value, 558 
Melons, 284 

composition, 285, 286 
Menhaden, 132 

Metchnikoff, sour milk diet, 554 
Milk, 169 

adaptation to young of each animal, 512 

content of fat, 174 
bacterial characteristics, 538 

count, 499, 539 
calorific value, 501 
certified, 171, 547 
character of environment, 170 
chromogenic bacteria, 539 
comparative analyses, 510 

composition, 175 
composition in relation to growth, 512- 

513 
computation of calorific value, 501 
curd test, 176 
detection of watered, 610 
influence on death rate, 548 



Milk, medium for bacterial growth, 538 
modified, 499 
organisms, 539 

pasteurization, 537, 540, 542, 544 
pasteurized, 173 
powder, keeping qualities, 536 
preparation, 171 
preservation, 532 
storage, 532 
superheating, 545 
supply, control, 545-546 

control in large cities, 546 
variation in composition, 509 
Mince meat, 494 

adulteration, 495 
pressed, 495 
Mixed flour, 244 

foods, time of beginning, 502 
Mock turtle soup, 79 
Modification of milk, diflficulties, 524 
Modtied milk, addition of alkalies, 523 
addition of milk sugar, 523 

of substitutes, 523 
composition, 497 
directions for use, 528 
distribution, 527 
formulas, 527 
general considerations, 521 
preparation in London Hospital, 529 
reasons, 522 

sample prescriptions, 531 
Straus laboratory formulas, 528 
Modifiers of milk, bacterial infection, 524 
Molasses, 477 
cane, 478 

first, second, and third, 478 
refinery, 479 
sugar- house, 479 
Mosquitoes, contamination' 550 
Mothers' and cows' milk, comparison of 
composition, 530 
milk, 506 

comparison, 530 

composition of mineral matter, 511- 

512 
importance, 508 
worry and excitement, 509 
variation in composition, 507 
Mulberry, 343 
Mullet, 132 
Muscarine, 447 
Mushroom, cepe, 445 
common, 440 
fairy ring, 443 
fly amanita, 446 
horse, 441 
poisoning, 448 

treatment, 448 
shaggy, 442, 443 
Mushrooms, adulteration, 449 
canned, 449 
composition, 432 
condition of growth, 431 



638 



INDEX. 



Mushrooms, cultivation in France, 431 

edible types, 440 

food value, 454 

historical, 429 

mycelium, 430 

pieces and stems, 449 

poisonous and edible, 433, 434 

removal of poison, 448 

signs of edible and poisonous, 435-439 

soil, 430 

spawn, 430 

spores, 430 

varieties, 440 
Muskallunge, 133 
Muskmelon, 284 
Mussel, 158 
Mustard, 325 
Mutton, commercial cuts, 19 



N. 
Napoleon, decree relating to beet sugar, 457 
Natural foods, 552 
Neat's foot oil, 94 
Nephritis, diet, 577 
Neutral lard, 68 
Nitrogenous bases, 88 
Noodles, 270 
Normal dose, 39, 40 
Nutmeg, 325 
Nutrition, disorder by illness, 551 

of the child, 498 
Nuts as a diet, 428 

composition, 572 



O. 

Oatmeal, adulteration, 235 

diet in diabetes, 574 
Oats, 232 

acreage and yield, 233 

composition, 234 

products, 234 

protein, 234 

ratio of kernel to hull, 233 

starch, 236 
Obesity, diet, 577 

exercise, 580 

gradual loss of weight, 580 

quantity of food, 579 
Odors, absorption, 549 
Oil, cod liver, 166 

salmon, 166 

sardine, 166 
Oils and fats, cjiemical characteristics, 389, 

crystalline characteristics, 391 
melting point, 392 
physical characteristics, 392 
refractive index, 392 
Reichert-Meissl number, 393 
saponification value, 393 



Oils and fats, specific gravity, 393 
vegetable, 389 

animal, 165 

distribution, 391 

drying, 391 

terrestrial animal, 93 
Okra, 286 
Oleomargarine, 187 

adulteration, 189 

boiling test, 609, 610 

composition, 190 

detection, 609 

manufacture, 189 

materials, 188 

production, 190 
Olive oil, 402 

adulteration, 402, 403 
color, 403 
constituents, 404 
manufacture, 405 
Olive-kernel oil, 405 
Onion, 286 
Oranges, 357, 358 

seedless, 359 
Osborne, danger of starch-free diets, 572 
Overfeeding, danger, 552 
Oyster, age, 159 

cultivation, 159 

floating, 162, 163 

living, 160 

proportion of shell, 161 

season, 160 

size, 159 

soup, 78 
Oysters, 1 58-1 61 

adulteration, 164 

average composition, 164 



Palm oil, 412 
Paprika, 325 
Parboiling, 41 

effect, 43-45 
Parmesan cheese, 210 
Parsnips, 287 
Pasteurization, commercial, 544 

directions, 542 

in Boston, 544 
. method, 537 

results, 540 
Pasteurized milk, rapid growth of or- 
ganisms, 544 
wholesomeness, 540 
Pates, composition, 54 
Peach preserves, 385 
Peaches, 339 

canned, 371 

cling, 341 

composition, 341 

free, 341 

use, 341 

varieties, 340 



INDEX. 



639 



Peanolia, 421 
Peanut butter, 412 
oil, 40b 

Renard's test, 406 
starch, 322 
Peanuts, 420 

localities where grown, 422 
Peas, 287 

adulteration of canned, 313 
canned, 312 

composition of canned, 313 
Pecan-nut, 424 
Pectose, 330 
Pepper, 325 
black, 325 
cayenne, 325 
red, 325 
white, 325 
Percentage feeding, 500 
Permanganate of potash, 448 
Pickerel, 132 
Pie fillers, 496 

adulteration, 496 
Pieces of edible animals, names, 17 
Pigeon, domesticated, 107 
Pigs, composition, 26, 27 
general conclusions, 33 
weight of parts, 26 
Pig's-foot grease, 71 
Pike, 132 
Pineapple, 360 
adulteration, 361 
Bahama, 363 
canned, 362 
composition, 363, 364 
Florida, 364 
Porto Rican, 364 
Singapore, 365 
Pine-nuts, 424 
Pistachio, 426 
Plantain m^eal, 319 
Plums, 341 

varieties, 342 
Polished rice, cause of disease, 554 
Pomelo, 351 
Pompono, 134 
Pont L'Eveque cheese, 208 
Popcorn, 225, 227 
Pork, commercial cuts, 19, 20 
important meat product, 33 
Port du Salut cheese, 207 
Porterhouse steak, 16 
Potato starch as food, 322 

manufacture, 296 
Potatoes, 288 
acreage, 289 
ash, 294 

composition, 290, 292, 293 
effect of manure, 29s 
for alcohol, 296 
German, 293 
price, 289 
starch, 291 



Potatoes, sugar content. 290 

sweet 299 

used in spirit manufacture, 297 

white, 294 

yield, 289 
Potted tongue, 56 

adulteration, 56 
Poultry, application of name, 95 

canned, 56 

cold storage, 100 

forced fattening, 109 

importance of animal food, 108 

increase in weight, no 
Predigested milk, objections, 520 
Prepared infants' foods not generally 
recommended, 514, 515, 516 
professional opinions, 513 
Preservatives, chemical vs. condimental, 

594 

fruit juices, 557 

in meats, 55 

kinds used, 37 
Preserved meats, 34 

standard, 57 
Preserves, 375, 384 

Proprietary foods, recommendation, 557 
Proteids, nutritive value, 564 
Protein, infant digestion, 504 
Puff-balls, 444 



Quince, 342 



R. 



Radish, 298 
Rape oil, 407 
- adulterations, 408 
manufacture, 408 
Raspberry, 343 
Ration, balanced, 5 

definition, 4 
Reagents, used in simple tests, 590 
Red snapper, 134 
Redeye, 135 

Renovated butter, detection, 608-609 
Reptiles, aquatic, 157 
Rhubarb, 299 
Rice, 236 

acreage and yield, 236 

starch, 236 
Roast beef, 21 

lamb, 22 
Rochester, death rate of children, 548-549 
Rock bass, 135 
Rolls, 264 

composition, 265 
Romaine lettuce, 284 
Roquefort cheese, 211 
Round of beef, composition, 505 

Rye, 237 

acreage and yield, 237 



640 



INDEX. 



Rye bread, 239 
cmposition, 238 
flour, adulteration, 239 
protein, 238 



Saccharin in canned corn, 311 

in tomatoes, 314, 316 

simple test, 597 
Saffron, 326 
Sage, 326 
Sago, 320 

Salicylic acid, simple test, 598 
Salmon, 135-138 

Atlantic coast, 137 

blueback, 137 

canned, 137 

Chinook, 136 

Pacific, 136 

Sebago, 138 

sockeye, 137 
Salt rising, 251 

Samples, preparation for analysis, 2S 
Sapodilla, 365 
Sapota, 365 
Sardines, 139 

adulteration, 140, 141 

California, 139 

European, 139 

French fisheries, 140 

packed in oil, 140 
Sausage, adulteration of canned, 60 

canned, 59 

composition, 59 
Savory, 326 
Scup, 141 

Scuppernong grape vine, 337 
Scurvy, 553 
Semolina, 263 
Sesame oil, 408 

adulteration, 409 
Baudouin's test, 409 

plant, 409 
Shad, 141 

roe, 143 

composition, 143 
Sheepshead, 143 
Shrimps, 156 

canned, 157 
Sirup, cane, 475 

maple, 472 

sorghum, 476 
Sirups, adulteration, 480 

general observations, 481 

mixed, 479 
Skimmed milk, 176 
Small cjuantities, argument, 38, 39 
Smelt, 144 
Sole, 146 

Soluble meats, 82, 83 
composition, 83 
Sorghum sirup, 476 



Soups, 77 

composition, 78 
preparation of stock, 77 
Sour milk and longevity, 554 
Sour-sop, 343 

Soy bean as infant food, 504 
flour, composition, 505 
value in diabetes, 575-576 
Spaghetti, 270 
Spanish mackerel, 144 
Squash, 299 
Star-apple, 366 
Starch, 9 

detection in jellies, 602 

in spices and condiments, 602 
free diet, danger, 572 
impracticable, 571 
in sausages, 55 
Starches, adulteration, 322 
as foods, 317 
in obesity, 579 
Starchy foods, 517 

for infants' foods, 503 
Steam lard, 68 
Sterilization, 42 

method, 537 
Sterilizing meats, general observations, 62 
Stilton cheese, manufacture, 205 
Storage, length, 22 

Straus, views on pasteurization, 542-543 
Strawberry, 343 
Striped bass, 146 
Sturgeon, 144 

Substitutes for human milk, 516 
for infants foods, 518 

relative nutritive properties, 519 
Sugar, 9 

adulteration, 471 
application of name, 455 
as food, 472 
beets, cultivation, 458 
geographic area, 459 
yield, 460 
cane, growth, 465 
corn, 226 

lost in fermentation, 259 
origin, 455 
refining, 469, 470 
source in diabetes, 568 
world production, 471 
Sugars in obesity, 579 
Sulfurous acid, 334 
Sunflower oil, 409 
Superheating milk, 545 
Sweet basil, 326 
corn, 226 

adulterations, 228 
potatoes, 299, 300 

acreage and yield, 303 
average composition, 303 
changes during storage, 302 
composition, 301, 302 
cultivation, 300 



INDEX. 



641 



Sweet potatoes, yield, 301 
Sweetened condensed milk, 534-535 
Sweet-sop, 344 



Tamarind, 366 

composition, 367 
Tannin, 334 
Tapioca, 320 

adulteration, 321 
Tautog, 147 
Terrapin, 157 
Tetanus germs, 91, 92 
Thyme, 326 
Tilefish, 147 
Tinning, 42 
Toadstools. 434 
Tomatoes, adulteration of canned, 315 

canned, 314 

composition of canned, 315 
Tongue, adulteration of canned, 50 

canned, 50 
Tonka bean, adulterant of vanilla, 606 
Treacle, 481 

Tropical fruits, ash, 367 
Trout, 147 
Truffles, 450 

adulteration, 453 

cultiv-ation, 451 

geographic distribution, 451 

harvesting, 451, 452 

properties, 453 

varieties, 451 
Tuberculosis, 13 

amount of food, 581 

diet, 580 

economy of feeding, 584 

experiments in diet, 582-583 

forced feeding, 582 

nature, 580 

no universal diet, 589 
Turbot, 149 
Turkey, 107 

adulteration of potted, 102 

composition, 108 
Turmeric, simple test, 599 
Turnip, 304 



U. 

Unsweetened condensed milk, 534 



V. 

Vanilla, resins, 605-606 
VaniUin, artificial, 606 
Veal, commercial cuts, 18 
Vegetable, definition, 272 

oils, edible, 393 
Vegetables, canned, 305 

succulent, 274 

value, 273 
Vegetarianism, 93 

Vinegar, adulteration and detection, 608 
Von Noorden, dietaries for diabetics, 574 



W. 

Wall-eyed pike, 134 
Walnuts, 426 

English, 427 

white, 427 
Water, in diabetes, 575 
Watermelon, 284, 285 
Weakfish, 149 
Weaning, diet, 502 
Weighing infants,Jmportance, 499 
Weight, relative, of canned and fresh meat, 

48 
Westminster Hospital, principle of modifi- 
cation, 531 

Infants' Hospital, milk, 529 
Wheat, 239 

acreage and yield, 240 

comparative digestibilit}-, 257 

con^position, 240 

products, 242 

standards, 241 

starch, 241 
Whey, 179 

composition, 179 

proteins, 530 
White grease, 70 
Whitefish, 150 



Xanthin bases, 90 



Yam, 304 
Yeast, 250 

extracts, 561-562 
Yellow grease, 71 



42 














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